8.7 - Europe during the Interwar Period

Rearmament and Expansion of Fascist States

Germany’s Reversal of the Treaty of Versailles: After World War I, the Treaty of Versailles imposed severe restrictions on Germany, including the requirement to demilitarize and reduce its territory. However, under Adolf Hitler's leadership, Germany rearmed and began expanding its territory, actions that directly violated the treaty. This aggressive expansion increased tensions across Europe.

Breaking the Treaty: Hitler took Germany out of the League of Nations in 1933 and in 1935 openly announced a draft army and an air force, both banned by Versailles. In 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome-Berlin Axis, and Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact against communism.

Appeasement Policy

Britain and France's Response: The policy of appeasement, primarily adopted by Britain and France, allowed Hitler to rearm Germany and expand without facing immediate consequences.

Reluctance to Engage in War: The devastating human and economic costs of World War I made these nations reluctant to engage in another war. As a result, they allowed Hitler to pursue his aggressive policies unchecked, hoping to avoid another large-scale conflict.

Fear of Another War: Memories of the trenches made pacifism popular, and many expected new bombers to destroy cities within days. France built the Maginot Line, a chain of forts along its border with Germany, which showed that it planned to defend rather than attack.

Some Sympathy for Germany: Many British leaders thought Versailles had been too harsh and that some of Hitler's demands (like uniting German-speakers) were reasonable. Britain's military was also unready, so Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain hoped to avoid war, or at least buy time, through negotiation.

American Isolationism: The U.S. had refused to join the League of Nations, and in the 1930s Congress passed Neutrality Acts (1935 to 1937) that banned selling weapons to countries at war. Britain and France could not count on American help, which made them even more cautious.

Distrust Between the Soviet Union and Western Powers

Growing Antagonism: Another factor that enabled Germany to rearm and expand was the deepening distrust between the Soviet Union and Western European states, along with the United States. The Soviet Union, an authoritarian communist state, was ideologically opposed to the capitalist democracies of the West.

Lack of a United Front: This mutual antagonism prevented these powers from forming a united front against the rising fascist states in Europe.

Distrust on Both Sides: Many Western leaders feared communism as much as fascism, and Stalin's purges made the Red Army look weak. The USSR joined the League (1934) and signed defense treaties with France and Czechoslovakia (1935), but it was not invited to the Munich Conference, and Poland refused to let Soviet troops cross its land. Stalin suspected that Britain and France wanted Hitler to turn east against the USSR.

Fascist Expansion Beyond Germany: While Germany was the primary focus, fascist Italy under Mussolini was also expanding during this period, taking advantage of the lack of coordinated opposition from the Western powers.

Specific Actions Leading to World War II

Italy's Invasion of Ethiopia (1935): Mussolini invaded Ethiopia, one of only two African states never colonized by Europeans, partly to avenge Italy's defeat there at Adwa in 1896. Italy used airplanes and poison gas against Ethiopian troops and civilians. Emperor Haile Selassie appealed to the League of Nations, but the League imposed only weak sanctions that left out oil, and Britain and France did not close the Suez Canal to Italian ships. Their secret plan to give Italy much of Ethiopia (the Hoare-Laval Pact) leaked and caused a scandal. Italy conquered Ethiopia in 1936, the League was discredited, and Mussolini moved closer to Hitler.

Germany’s Re-militarization of the Rhineland (1936): Hitler began by re-militarizing the Rhineland, a clear violation of the Treaty of Versailles. This act was a test to see if Britain and France would enforce the treaty. When they did not, due to their policy of appeasement, Hitler continued his aggressive expansion.

Anschluss with Austria (1938): Hitler annexed Austria in a move known as the Anschluss, justifying it by the presence of a large German-speaking population in Austria. A rigged vote showed 99% of Austrians in favor of the annexation, though the legitimacy of this vote was highly questionable.

Expansion into Czechoslovakia: After Austria, Hitler targeted the Sudetenland and other parts of Czechoslovakia. Britain and France continued their policy of appeasement, culminating in the Munich Agreement, where they conceded to Hitler's demands in exchange for his promise not to seek further territory. Hitler, however, had no intention of honoring this agreement.

The Munich Agreement (September 1938): Hitler demanded the Sudetenland, the border region of Czechoslovakia where about 3 million German-speakers lived. At Munich, British Prime Minister Chamberlain and French Premier Édouard Daladier agreed to give it to Germany, without Czechoslovakia or the Soviet Union at the table. Chamberlain returned home claiming "peace for our time."

Munich Violated (March 1939): Hitler broke the agreement by seizing the rest of the Czech lands (Bohemia and Moravia) and making Slovakia a puppet state. This was the first time he took land with no German majority, and it showed that appeasement had failed. Britain and France then promised to defend Poland.

The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (1939): Hitler secured a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, agreeing that neither would attack the other for the next decade. Additionally, they agreed to divide Poland between them, giving Hitler the confidence to invade Poland without fear of Soviet opposition.

Why Stalin Signed (August 23, 1939): Talks between the Soviets and the British and French had gone nowhere, and Stalin doubted the West would fight for Eastern Europe. The pact gave him time to rebuild his army and a share of Eastern Europe, including eastern Poland and the Baltic states. For Hitler, it meant he could attack Poland without facing a two-front war.

Invasion of Poland (1939): Hitler’s invasion of Poland was the final straw for Britain and France. Despite his commitments in the Munich Agreement, Hitler continued his territorial expansion, leading Britain and France to declare war on Germany. This marked the official start of World War II.

Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, and Britain and France declared war on September 3. On September 17, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, as the pact's secret terms allowed.