8.6 - Fascism and Totalitarianism

The Rise of Totalitarianism in Interwar Europe

• Post-World War I Disillusionment: World War I was intended, at least according to American President Woodrow Wilson, to make the world safe for democracy. However, instead of a flourishing of democratic governments, the interwar period in Europe saw the rise of totalitarian regimes.

Understanding Fascism

• Definition of Fascism: Fascism is a political philosophy centered on obedience to an authoritarian leader, where the state’s resources are directed to fulfill the leader's ambitions. Benito Mussolini, the Italian fascist leader, symbolized fascism with a bundle of sticks and an ax, representing strength through unity under a powerful leader.

• Reasons for the Appeal of Fascism:

  • Social Divisions Post-War: World War I left many European societies deeply divided along class lines. The working class had gained power due to wartime production needs, while the middle class suffered as consumer industries struggled.

  • Gender Tensions: During the war, many women took on roles traditionally held by men, gaining a sense of importance in society. However, after the war, they were expected to return to domestic roles, which led to frustration.

  • Fear of Communism: The rise of communism, particularly in Russia, created fear among many Europeans. Fascism presented itself as a strong alternative, offering protection against the spread of communism.

  • Economic Instability: The Great Depression caused widespread economic hardship, including high unemployment and runaway inflation. This environment made the promises of strong fascist leaders, who claimed they could restore stability, particularly appealing.

Mussolini and Fascism in Italy

• Italy's Post-War Struggles: In the 1920s, Italy faced severe social and economic challenges, including high unemployment and war debt. The existing government struggled to address these issues effectively.

• Mussolini’s Rise to Power: Benito Mussolini, originally a left-wing socialist, shifted to extreme right-wing fascism, recognizing that these ideas could gain him power. He aggressively opposed communism and infused his rhetoric with Italian nationalism, eventually positioning himself and his followers as the solution to Italy's problems.

Mussolini’s Consolidation of Power in Italy

• March on Rome: In 1922, Benito Mussolini led his fascist followers, known as the Blackshirts, in a march on Rome. This bold move pressured the King of Italy to appoint Mussolini as Prime Minister.

• Dictatorial Powers: Within a few years, the Italian Parliament granted Mussolini dictatorial powers for one year—a power he never relinquished. This marked the beginning of Mussolini’s total control over Italy and the establishment of a totalitarian fascist state.

Establishing a Totalitarian State

• Propaganda and Technology: Mussolini effectively used modern technology and propaganda to spread his message across Italy. His propaganda glorified war, warned against the dangers of democracy and communism, and presented fascism as the solution to the political and economic instability of post-war Europe.

• Secret Police: Mussolini also relied on a secret police force, the Blackshirts, to maintain control through violence and intimidation. This force, composed mainly of students and war veterans, used brutal methods, including forced consumption of castor oil, which caused severe and often fatal diarrhea, to silence dissenters.

• Limitations of Control: Despite these tactics, Mussolini never achieved complete control over Italy. The Italian monarchy and armed forces retained some degree of independence.

The Rise of Fascism in Germany

• Germany's Post-War Struggles: After World War I, Germany suffered immensely, facing severe economic decline and international humiliation due to the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles. The Weimar government struggled to address these issues, leading to widespread discontent and a fertile ground for extremist ideologies.

• Hitler and the Nazi Party: Adolf Hitler, who harbored deeply rooted racist and anti-Semitic beliefs, rose to power in this environment. By the 1920s, Hitler had gained control of the National Socialist German Workers' Party, commonly known as the Nazi Party.

• Hitler’s Seizure of Power: Like Mussolini, Hitler convinced the German parliament to grant him emergency dictatorial powers, which he also never relinquished. He utilized propaganda, including radio and film, to spread nationalist and anti-Semitic messages, solidifying his control over Germany.

Hitler’s Propaganda and Control in Germany

• Use of Film and Media: Adolf Hitler effectively used film and other media to strengthen his control over Germany. His speeches were filmed, showing him surrounded by adoring crowds, which helped create an image of universal appeal and unwavering support for his leadership.

• The SS and Heinrich Himmler: Hitler also relied on a secret police force known as the SS (Schutzstaffel) to enforce his policies through terror. The SS, organized by Heinrich Himmler, was responsible for widespread oppression, including the operation of concentration camps and the execution of Hitler’s racial purification policies.

Fascism Spreads to Spain

• Spain’s Political Turmoil: Following the Great Depression, Spain experienced significant economic and political instability, leading to the collapse of its parliamentary democracy. By 1936, a leftist group known as the Popular Front, which represented workers and communists, took control of the government.

• Francisco Franco and the Spanish Civil War: The Spanish Army, led by General Francisco Franco, strongly opposed the Popular Front and launched a violent uprising against it, leading to the Spanish Civil War. Franco, with the support of Hitler and Mussolini, ultimately won the war and established himself as the authoritarian ruler of Spain.

• A Prelude to World War II: The Spanish Civil War served as a testing ground for World War II. Fascist leaders like Hitler and Mussolini observed that Western democracies did little to oppose Franco's fascist regime, which emboldened them to pursue further aggressive actions in the late 1930s.

Fascism and Authoritarianism in Eastern Europe

• Spread to Eastern Europe: The interwar years also saw the rise of fascist and authoritarian governments in Eastern Europe. Several new states created after World War I, such as Poland, Hungary, and Romania, were initially established as parliamentary democracies. However, these democracies struggled due to the economic difficulties of the time and the inexperience of their populations with democratic governance.

• Shift to Authoritarianism: In the face of economic hardship and political instability, many of these states turned to fascist or authoritarian leaders who promised to solve their problems quickly and decisively.

The Soviet Union Under Stalin

• Post-Revolution Soviet Union: After the Russian Revolution, Vladimir Lenin established Russia as a communist state. Although fascists and communists are typically seen as ideological opposites, both systems shared authoritarian characteristics.

• Joseph Stalin’s Rise to Power: Following Lenin's death, Joseph Stalin emerged as the leader of the Soviet Union. Stalin, known for his brutal policies, sent over a million political dissidents to forced labor camps called gulags. Torture was commonly used to extract false confessions from his enemies.

The Five-Year Plans

• Industrialization Efforts: Stalin implemented the first of his Five-Year Plans with the goal of rapidly modernizing and industrializing the Soviet Union. While these plans resulted in significant industrial growth, the human cost was enormous.

• Living Conditions: Millions of workers moved to new industrial centers, but they were forced to live in extremely poor conditions, with inadequate housing and rapidly decreasing wages. Stalin's elaborate propaganda campaigns convinced people that they were contributing to the progress of the Socialist Utopia promised by the revolution.

The Great Purge

• Suppression of Opposition: After the first Five-Year Plan failed, criticism of Stalin within the Communist Party intensified, with some members calling for his removal. One of the most notable critics was Leon Trotsky, a key figure in Lenin's regime. In response, Stalin initiated the Great Purge, a systematic campaign to eliminate all of his perceived enemies from the party and the state.

The Great Purge and the Role of Secret Police

• The Great Purge: Stalin’s Great Purge involved the systematic imprisonment, torture, and execution of anyone who opposed him or his policies. The secret police were instrumental in silencing political dissent and maintaining Stalin’s totalitarian regime.

Collectivization and Its Consequences

• Kulaks and Collectivization: During Lenin's era, a class of wealthy landowners known as kulaks emerged, employing peasants to work their land. Stalin, viewing the kulaks as capitalist enemies of the state, implemented a policy of collectivization. This policy involved seizing land from landowners and placing it under state control.

• Impact on Ukraine: The consequences of collectivization were particularly devastating in Ukraine, the Soviet Union’s largest grain-producing region. Ukrainian kulaks strongly resisted Stalin’s policies, leading Stalin to enact harsh measures that resulted in widespread famine. This event, known as the Holodomor, caused the starvation and death of approximately 7 million Ukrainians.

• Holodomor: Stalin's actions during the Holodomor included cutting off food supplies, arresting, torturing, or executing farmers who withheld food, and preventing Ukrainians from leaving the region to find food elsewhere. The Holodomor stands as a tragic example of the brutal outcomes of Soviet collectivization and Stalin's ruthless consolidation of power.