1.5 - New Monarchies

Top-Down Religious Reform

Introduction to Top-Down Religious Reform:

• Top-down religious reform refers to changes in religious practices and structures initiated by monarchs to consolidate their power. A prime example is Henry VIII of England.

Henry VIII and the Church of England:

• Henry VIII initially opposed Protestant doctrines and was even named "Defender of the Faith" by the Pope for his stance against Martin Luther.

• However, Henry sought an annulment from his wife, Catherine of Aragon, who failed to produce a male heir. When the Pope refused to grant the annulment due to pressure from Catherine's family (the Catholic monarchs of Spain), Henry took matters into his own hands.

• Henry divorced Catherine, married Anne Boleyn, and declared himself the head of the Church of England through an act passed by the English Parliament.

• The Treason Act was introduced, making it a capital crime to refuse to recognize the Church of England as the official state church.

• Henry's actions marked the beginning of top-down religious reform in England, where the monarch used religious changes to strengthen political power.

Religious Reforms Under Mary Tudor and Elizabeth I:

• Mary Tudor attempted to return England to Catholicism during her reign, another example of top-down religious reform.

• Elizabeth I, Henry's daughter, reversed Mary’s policies, reestablishing Anglicanism (the Church of England) as the state religion.

  • The Act of Uniformity required English subjects to attend Anglican church services weekly or face fines, further consolidating royal power through religious reform.

Consolidation of Power through Bureaucracy and Taxation:

• Monarchs also consolidated power by controlling taxation and extending bureaucratic power.

  • A bureaucracy is a group of officials responsible for ensuring the implementation of laws, including the collection of taxes.

• Examples of bureaucratic and taxation reforms include:

  • Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain established national taxes on property transactions and created a large bureaucracy to manage tax collection and justice.

  • In France, the Concordat of Bologna (1516) allowed King Francis I to appoint church officials, restricting their direct communication with the Pope, while the Pope retained the right to collect income from the French Catholic Church.

Right to Determine Religion:

• Another method of consolidating power was by assuming the right to determine the religion of their subjects, usually choosing between Catholicism and Protestantism.

  • A significant document in this context is the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which allowed rulers in the Holy Roman Empire to decide whether their subjects would be Catholic or Lutheran, one of the earliest forms of Protestantism.

Rise of Commercial and Professional Groups

Introduction:

• During the period of top-down religious reforms and the consolidation of monarchical power, commercial and professional groups also gained significant influence.

• These groups, particularly merchants and bankers, began to play a larger role in political affairs.

Key Groups:

• Merchants and Bankers were the primary groups that saw a rise in power, especially in the Italian and German states.

  • Italy:

    • The Medici family in Florence established a powerful banking industry, becoming central figures in both the economy and politics.

  • Germany:

    • The Fugger family in Augsburg played a similar role, establishing a dominant banking industry in the German states.

Rise of the Money Economy:

• The growing money economy of the time meant that vast amounts of wealth flowed through the hands of these banking families.

• This economic power fostered close alliances between the banking families and monarchs, allowing these commercial groups to wield increased political influence.

Rise of the Secular State

Introduction to the Secular State:

• The concept of a secular state refers to a government where the church has little to no political influence.

• This idea first emerged in the fragmented Italian states and later spread to France, Britain, and the Dutch Republic, where it was discussed by various authors.

Key Thinkers and Their Views:

• Niccolò Machiavelli (Italy):

  • In his work Discourses on the Ten Books of Titus Livy, Machiavelli championed republicanism, a form of government where elected representatives make laws and govern with the consent of the people.

• Jean Bodin (France):

  • Bodin argued that the best structure for a secular state was an absolute monarchy.

  • He believed in the concept of divine right, where the monarch rules as a substitute for God on earth, holding absolute power.