6.6 - Reactions and Revolutions

Klemens von Metternich and the Conservative Reaction

Introduction:

• After the defeat of Napoleon, Klemens von Metternich and other conservative leaders at the Congress of Vienna sought to roll back the liberal reforms that had emerged in Europe. They aimed to restore traditional order and prevent further chaos and violence.

Challenges to Conservatism:

• Despite Metternich's efforts, not everyone in Europe welcomed the conservative agenda. Discontent with conservative rule began to surface early in the 19th century, leading to significant uprisings and revolts.

The Greek War of Independence (1821-1832)

Background:

• Greece was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, a conservative government, at the start of the 19th century.

• The Greek War of Independence began in 1821, driven by Greek nationalists seeking to establish a nation defined by their own language, culture, and historical heritage.

Conflict and Outcome:

• Initially, the Greek forces were no match for the powerful Ottoman Empire, and the Greeks suffered significant defeats.

• However, Britain, France, and Russia eventually allied with the Greeks, not out of sympathy for their cause but as a strategic move to weaken the Ottoman Empire.

• With the support of these major powers, Greece won its independence in 1832. This victory was one of the first signs of the growing discontent that would eventually lead to the widespread revolutions of 1848.

The Decembrist Revolt (1825)

Background:

• In December 1825, Tsar Nicholas I ascended to the Russian throne after the death of his brother, Alexander I, who had become increasingly conservative in his later years.

• The transfer of power prompted a group of Russian military officers, known as the Decembrists, to attempt a coup, influenced by liberal ideals.

The Revolt:

• The Decembrists sought to implement liberal reforms and challenge the autocratic rule of the Tsar. However, their efforts were quickly crushed by Nicholas’s superior forces.

Aftermath:

• Following the failed revolt, Tsar Nicholas I became even more committed to suppressing dissent. He significantly increased the use of the secret police to root out and eliminate any opposition, reinforcing his conservative and autocratic rule.

The July Revolution (1830)

Background:

• In France, Charles X was an extremely conservative monarch who aimed to restore France to its pre-French Revolution structure.

• In July 1830, Charles X attempted to strip the middle class of voting rights and imposed censorship on the press, actions that provoked widespread anger.

The Revolt:

• In response, middle-class liberals and working-class citizens took to the streets of Paris, leading to three days of intense rioting and fighting.

• Realizing the severity of the situation, Charles X fled the country, abdicating his throne.

Aftermath:

• Louis Philippe succeeded Charles X and restored some of the rights that had been taken away. However, he maintained a conservative stance similar to his predecessor, leading to continued dissatisfaction among the people.

Lead-Up to the Revolutions of 1848

Mood of the Continent:

• By the time of the Revolutions of 1848, Europe was simmering with discontent. In France, under Louis Philippe's conservative regime, many people demanded a more liberal government.

• A bread shortage further fueled the unrest, leading to widespread protests. When the King responded with military force, resulting in the deaths of about 50 protesters, Parisians erected barricades throughout the city.

Outcome:

• The uprising forced Louis Philippe to abdicate the throne, and a provisional government was established, restoring the French Republic and enacting the liberal reforms demanded by the people.

The French Republic and Class Division

Provisional Government:

• After the abdication of Louis Philippe, a provisional government was established in France, marking the restoration of the French Republic. However, this government was quickly weakened by internal class divisions.

• A major point of contention was between the Liberals and the Socialists regarding the treatment of the poor:

  • Socialists advocated for government-sponsored workhouses to provide employment for the unemployed. As a result, many workhouses were established across France.

  • However, in the subsequent election, a majority of middle-class men were elected to the National Assembly, and they decided to shut down most of the workhouses.

Uprising and New Constitution:

• The closure of the workhouses led to a spontaneous uprising in the streets, which the military had to suppress.

• During this unrest, the National Assembly completed a new Constitution, which established a strong executive branch. This led to the election of Napoleon Bonaparte's nephew as the leader, who soon crowned himself Emperor Napoleon III.

• As a result, the revolution in France in 1848 was ultimately deemed a failure, as it led back to authoritarian rule.

Revolutionary Spirit in the German States

Spread of Revolution:

• The revolutionary spirit that erupted in France in 1848 spread to the German states, particularly in Prussia.

• Inspired by the events in France, revolutionaries in Prussia and other German states began to demand more liberal reforms, including constitutional reforms, voting rights, and most importantly, the unification of the German states.

Prussian Response:

• The revolution reached its peak in Prussia, the strongest of the German states. King Frederick William IV initially suppressed the revolution with force but eventually agreed to make some reforms demanded by the liberals.

• Frankfurt Assembly:

  • In response, delegates from the German states convened at the Frankfurt Assembly to draft a new constitution for a unified Germany.

Frankfurt Assembly (1848-1849)

Background:

• The Frankfurt Assembly was convened with the goal of drafting a constitution that would unify the German states. This was a response to the growing demand for national unification and liberal reforms across the German territories.

Challenges and Outcome:

• Despite the initial momentum, the conservative monarchy managed to exploit divisions among the delegates, particularly along class and party lines. These divisions prevented the assembly from reaching any significant consensus.

• King Frederick William IV of Prussia ultimately refused to accept the constitution proposed by the Frankfurt Assembly, and he used his authority to crush the remaining protests. As a result, the efforts to unify Germany under a liberal framework failed, marking the collapse of the revolutionary movement in the German states.

Revolutions of 1848 in Austria and Beyond

Austria:

• The Austrian Empire was a multi-ethnic state with various groups, each inspired by nationalism and seeking self-rule.

• In 1848, these different ethnic groups revolted for various reasons. However, with the assistance of Russia, Austria managed to suppress these uprisings, maintaining the conservative order.

General Impact of the 1848 Revolutions:

• The Revolutions of 1848 represented widespread rebellion against the conservative status quo across Europe. However, these revolutions largely failed, leading to a conservative backlash in the states where they occurred. In many cases, this resulted in an increase in conservative measures and the reinforcement of existing power structures.

Russia and the Aftermath of 1848

Russian Response:

• Although Russia experienced similar revolutionary rumblings, a significant uprising did not occur until 1905.

• Tsar Alexander II was particularly concerned by Russia's loss in the Crimean War and recognized the need for substantial reforms to modernize Russia.

• Alexander II enacted several liberal reforms, including the emancipation of the serfs, the creation of an independent court system, and the modernization of Russia's military and industrial capacity.

• Despite these efforts, Alexander II was assassinated, and his successor, Alexander III, took a much more conservative approach, rolling back many of the reforms.

Alexander III and Industrialization in Russia

Background:

• After the assassination of Alexander II, his son Alexander III ascended to the Russian throne. Unlike his father, Alexander III was not interested in liberal reforms but focused on strengthening Russian greatness through industrialization.

Economic Reforms:

• Under the guidance of his Finance Minister, Sergey Witte, Alexander III took significant steps to modernize Russia's economy:

  • Protective tariffs were enacted to encourage domestic purchases.

  • The Russian currency was placed on the gold standard, stabilizing the economy.

• While these measures improved the economy, many Russians continued to live in extreme poverty under the authoritarian rule of the Tsar.

The Revolution of 1905

Causes:

• The continued poverty and lack of political freedoms under Tsarist autocracy led to widespread discontent, culminating in the Revolution of 1905.

• The revolutionaries demanded a more liberal government, pushing for greater political representation and civil liberties.

Reforms and the October Manifesto:

• In response to the pressure, Alexander III appointed Sergey Witte to draft reforms, which were codified in the October Manifesto. Key provisions included:

  • Universal suffrage for men.

  • Citizenship rights for all Russians.

  • Freedom of speech.

  • The establishment of a representative body called the Duma.

Aftermath:

• Despite these concessions, the Tsar retained the absolute right to veto any law, maintaining significant autocratic power.

• Over time, some of the reforms introduced by the October Manifesto were rolled back, leaving many of the revolutionaries' demands unmet and setting the stage for future unrest in Russia.