5.1 - The Enlightenment

An Age of New Ideas

Growing out of the Scientific Revolution and the humanism of the Renaissance, Enlightenment thought was optimistic. Many writers believed that applying reason to natural laws would result in progress. While not denying the existence of God, they emphasized human accomplishments in understanding the natural world. Such beliefs led to the conclusion that natural laws governed the social and political spheres as well. While traditional religion did not disappear, it became less pervasive.

• New Ideas: Schools of thought including socialism and liberalism arose, giving rise to the period being called “the Age of Isms.” Opposing socialism and liberalism were currents of conservatism, particularly popular among the European ruling class.

• Revolutions: The clash between new ideas and old political structures led to revolutions with aims of independence from imperial powers and constitutional representation. Nationalism, the intense loyalty to others who share one’s language and culture, played a significant role in these movements.

New Ideas and Their Roots

• Empiricism: In the 17th century, Francis Bacon emphasized empirical methods of scientific inquiry. Empiricism is the belief that knowledge comes from sensed experience, from what you observe through your experience, including through experiments.

• Hobbes and Locke:

  • Thomas Hobbes: Argued that people’s natural state was to live in a bleak world. By agreeing to a social contract, they gave up some rights to a strong central government in return for law and order.

  • John Locke: Argued that the social contract implied the right to revolt against unjust government. People had natural rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of property. Emphasized the environment and education in shaping people.

• The Philosophes: 18th-century thinkers like Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Adam Smith, and French thinkers explored social, political, and economic theories.

  • Baron Montesquieu: Praised the British government’s use of checks on power and influenced the American system of separation of powers.

  • Voltaire: Advocated for civil liberties and religious liberty. His ideas influenced the U.S. Constitution.

  • Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Expanded on the social contract and believed in the General Will of the population.

  • Adam Smith: Advocated for freer trade and laissez-faire economics. His ideas provided a foundation for capitalism.

Enlightenment Ideas in Practice

• Deism: Belief that a divinity set natural laws in motion and did not interfere in day-to-day workings. Deists believed these laws could be best understood through scientific inquiry.

• Thomas Paine: Militant in his defense of Deism and advocated for liberty from Britain.

The Age of New Ideas Continues

• Conservatism: A belief in traditional institutions, favoring reliance on practical experience over ideological theories.

• Utopian Socialism: Advocated for ideal communities and public or direct worker ownership of the means of production.

  • Henri de Saint-Simon: Believed in collaboration between scientists, engineers, and businesses.

  • Charles Fourier: Advocated for harmonious living in communities.

  • Robert Owen: Established intentional communities governed by utopian socialism principles.

• Classical Liberalism: Advocated for natural rights, constitutional government, laissez-faire economics, and reduced government spending.

• Feminism: Emerged as a movement for women’s rights and equality based on Enlightenment ideas.

  • Olympe de Gouges: Fought for women’s rights during the French Revolution.

  • Mary Wollstonecraft: Advocated for equal education for women.

  • Seneca Falls Convention: In 1848, activists gathered to promote women’s rights and suffrage.

Abolitionism and Other Movements

• Abolitionism: The movement to end the Atlantic slave trade and free all enslaved people. Most countries abolished slavery within 60 years of ending the slave trade.

• The End of Serfdom: Serfdom declined as the economy changed from agrarian to industrial. Peasant revolts pushed leaders toward reform.

• Zionism: The desire of Jews to reestablish an independent homeland where their ancestors had lived in the Middle East. Led by Theodor Herzl, Zionism gained support, culminating in the establishment of Israel in 1948.