Embedded Files
Suez Crisis (1956)
Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, previously controlled by Britain and France, threatening Western Europe's oil supply.
Britain, France, and Israel attacked Egypt, but U.S. President Eisenhower, kept in the dark, condemned the invasion and pressured them to withdraw.
This event marked the decline of British and French influence in the Middle East and the rise of U.S. involvement.
Eisenhower Doctrine (1957)
The U.S. pledged economic and military aid to any Middle Eastern country threatened by communism.
Eisenhower applied this doctrine by sending U.S. Marines to Lebanon in 1958 to prevent a civil war.
OPEC and Oil
In 1960, Middle Eastern oil producers (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran) and Venezuela formed the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) to coordinate oil policies and expand political power.
Western reliance on Middle Eastern oil, Arab nationalism, and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict would increasingly shape U.S. foreign policy.
Yom Kippur War and Oil Embargo (1973)
Syria and Egypt launched a surprise attack on Israel on Yom Kippur, leading to U.S. support for Israel with $2 billion in arms.
Arab members of OPEC retaliated with an oil embargo, causing a global oil shortage, inflation, and economic decline in the U.S.
This crisis led to long lines at gas stations and a shift to smaller, fuel-efficient cars, severely impacting U.S. automobile workers.
Camp David Accords (1978)
President Carter brokered a peace agreement between Egypt and Israel, with Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin negotiating at Camp David.
Egypt became the first Arab nation to recognize Israel, and Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula.
Despite opposition from the PLO and much of the Arab world, this was a significant step toward Middle East peace.
Iran and the Hostage Crisis (1979)
In Iran, Islamic fundamentalists led by Ayatollah Khomeini overthrew the U.S.-backed shah, leading to a halt in oil exports and another global oil crisis.
Iranian militants seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran, holding over 50 Americans hostage for 444 days.
A failed rescue mission in 1980 deepened the perception of President Carter's weakness, symbolizing the struggles of his presidency.
Return of the "Big Stick"
President Johnson prioritized anti-communism over democracy in Latin America.
The Alliance for Progress declined under his administration.
Johnson sent U.S. troops to the Dominican Republic to prevent a Communist takeover and supported a military coup in Brazil in 1964.
He dealt firmly with riots in Panama over U.S. control of the Canal Zone but later agreed to negotiations that led to its return to Panama in 1999.
Johnson's policies resembled Theodore Roosevelt's "Big Stick" approach, aiming to prevent any Communist government in the Western Hemisphere.
Panama Canal
President Carter aimed to address the inequities of the original 1903 Panama Canal Treaty.
In 1978, the Senate ratified a treaty to gradually transfer control of the Panama Canal to Panama by the year 2000.
Critics labeled this as Carter's "giveaway" of the canal during the 1980 election.
Human Rights Diplomacy
Carter's foreign policy focused on promoting human rights globally.
He appointed Andrew Young, an African American, as U.S. ambassador to the United Nations.
Carter and Young opposed the oppression of Black majorities in South Africa and Rhodesia and cut off U.S. aid to Argentina and Chile due to human rights violations by their military governments.
Limits of a Superpower
The 1969 moon landing marked a significant achievement for the U.S. space program.
Despite these successes, the U.S. faced challenges such as the Watergate scandal, economic stagnation, and the fall of South Vietnam.
The 1970s brought economic difficulties, including foreign competition, oil shortages, rising unemployment, and high inflation, signaling that the U.S. was losing its competitive edge in the global economy.
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