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Working Conditions:
The Sadler Report (1832): A study by Britain’s Parliament featuring dangerous and unsanitary working conditions, low wages, and long hours in factories, raising awareness for reforms.
Formation of Labor Unions: Workers began organizing labor unions to advocate for better conditions, wages, and hours. Initially, unions were considered illegal and had to operate in secret, but by the 20th century, they became more accepted and influential.
Achievements of Unions:
Worker Rights: Unions succeeded in securing minimum wage laws, limits on working hours, overtime pay, and the establishment of a five-day workweek.
Voting Rights
Empowerment Movement:
Reform Acts: The British Parliament passed reform bills in 1832, 1867, and 1884, expanding the pool of men who could vote by reducing property ownership qualifications.
Universal Male Suffrage: These reforms laid the foundation for granting all men the right to vote in 1918. British women gained equal suffrage in 1928.
Child Labor
Social Activism:
Laws and Education: Reforms included banning children under ten from working in coal mines (1842) and making education mandatory for children aged 5 to 10 (1881). These changes redefined the role of children in urban society.
Intellectual Reactions
John Stuart Mill:
Utilitarianism: Mill’s philosophy sought “the greatest good for the greatest number of people.” He advocated for legal reforms to allow labor unions, limit child labor, and ensure safe working conditions.
Moderate Reforms: Unlike utopian socialists, Mill aimed to address the problems of capitalism rather than replace it.
Karl Marx:
Scientific Socialism: Marx, along with Friedrich Engels, critiqued capitalism in "The Communist Manifesto" (1848). Marx argued that capitalism exploited the proletariat (working class) for the benefit of the bourgeoisie (middle class and investors).
Class Struggle: He called for the proletariat to overthrow the bourgeoisie and take control of the means of production, leading to socialism and eventually communism, where all class distinctions would end.
Ottoman Response to Industrialization
Sultan Mahmud II’s Reforms:
Military and Administrative Reforms: Abolished the Janissaries, centralized tax collection, built roads, and established a postal service. Created European-style ministries and set up a government directory of charities.
Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1876): Rooted out corruption, created secular schools, codified laws, and issued the Hatt-i Humayun, which declared equality for all men regardless of religion or ethnicity.
Economic and Social Changes:
Industrialization: The Ottoman economy experienced changes with increased cash payments, growth in banking, and the slow spread of industrialization. Legal reforms generally benefited men more than women.
Opposition to Reform:
Sultan Abdulhamid II: Initially supported reforms but later became more conservative. Suppressed advocates for reform (Young Turks) and instigated violence against minority groups, including the Hamidian massacres against Armenians.
China’s Response to Industrialization
Self-Strengthening Movement:
Modernization Efforts: Sought to advance military technology, establish a diplomatic corps, and create a customs service. Aimed to graft modern ideas onto Chinese traditions.
Hundred Days of Reform (1898):
Sweeping Reforms: Abolition of the civil service exam, elimination of corruption, and establishment of Western-style systems. Led by Emperor Guangxu but opposed by Empress Dowager Cixi, who repealed the reforms.
Resistance and Later Reforms:
Cixi’s Conservatism: Initially resisted modernization but later recognized issues with the civil service system. The Boxer Rebellion and external pressures forced further modernization efforts.
Transition to Republic:
End of Qing Dynasty: China became a republic in 1911, resisting foreign domination and maintaining territorial integrity with support from international powers like the U.S.
Japan’s Response to Industrialization
Meiji Restoration (1868):
Dramatic Modernization: Abolished feudalism, established a constitutional monarchy, reformed the military, expanded education, built infrastructure, and subsidized key industries.
Social Impact: Rapid changes led to backlash from conservative samurai, with some adapting to new roles while others resisted.
Limits and Decline of Liberalization:
Early Success: Improved literacy rates, rapid industrialization, and development of democratic traits. However, by the 1920s, military officers began to dominate the government, limiting liberal reforms.
Turkey, China, and Japan:
Turkey: Began reforms early but faced conservative resistance under Sultan Abdulhamid.
China: Initially resisted reform but eventually modernized under external pressure and internal necessity.
Japan: Rapid and comprehensive reforms during the Meiji Restoration, with a backlash from conservative elements.
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