Unit 5: Agriculture and Rural Land-Use Patterns and Processes

Agricultural Hearths and Domestication

Neolithic Era: Emergence of Agriculture

• Introduction: Agriculture began around 12,000 years ago during the Neolithic Era, significantly altering human society from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled agriculturalists.

Key Agricultural Hearths

• Central America: Maize (corn) and potatoes were first domesticated here, playing a crucial role in local diets.

• Africa: Coffee, referred to as "liquid gold," originates from this continent, becoming a major economic commodity.

• Fertile Crescent: Wheat and barley were among the first crops cultivated in this region, leading to the development of early civilizations.

• Southeast Asia: Mango and taro were domesticated, with taro being a staple in many Pacific cultures.

• East Asia: Rice was domesticated, forming the staple food for a large part of the world’s population.

Animal Domestication

• New World: Llamas and turkeys were among the few domesticated animals, contrasting with the Old World’s greater variety.

• Old World: Horses, chickens, and cattle were domesticated, significantly impacting transportation, agriculture, and diets.

Columbian Exchange

• Definition: A period of cultural and biological exchanges between the New and Old Worlds. Exchanges included plants, animals, diseases, and technology that transformed European and Native American ways of life.

• Impact: Introduced new crops to Europe (potatoes, tomatoes) and brought horses and cattle to the Americas, but also led to devastating disease outbreaks among indigenous populations.

Agricultural Revolutions

First Agricultural Revolution

• Transition: Marked the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to settled agricultural communities.

• Developments: Included the domestication of plants and animals and the use of simple tools.

Second Agricultural Revolution

• Period: Coincided with the Industrial Revolution.

• Advancements: Introduced mechanized farming tools like the McCormick reaper and the seed drill, significantly increasing agricultural productivity and efficiency.

• Socioeconomic Impacts: Led to a population increase, longer life expectancies, and urban migration as fewer laborers were needed on farms.

Green Revolution

• Time Frame: Mid-20th century.

• Innovations: Included the development of high-yield crop varieties, increased use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, and further mechanization of agriculture.

• Aquaculture: Introduced as part of efforts to increase protein sources through the farming of fish in controlled environments.

• Goals and Outcomes: Aimed to alleviate hunger by increasing food production; significantly boosted crop outputs but also led to environmental concerns such as increased pesticide use and water overuse.

Pros of the Green Revolution

1. Increased Food Production: The introduction of high-yield crop varieties significantly boosted food production, which was critical in meeting the growing global population's demands.

2. Reduction in Global Hunger: By increasing food availability and making it more affordable, the Green Revolution played a key role in reducing hunger levels in many developing countries.

3. Economic Gains for Farmers: Higher yields per acre allowed farmers to produce more crops, leading to increased sales and profits, particularly for those who could invest in the new technologies.

Cons of the Green Revolution

1. Environmental Damage: The heavy use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides led to soil degradation, water pollution, and harmed local wildlife, contributing to ecological imbalances.

2. Social Inequality: The capital-intensive nature of the Green Revolution technologies meant that wealthier landowners who could afford these investments benefited the most, widening the gap between rich and poor farmers.

3. Reduced Biodiversity: The focus on monocropping and high-yield varieties led to a reduction in the genetic diversity of crops, which makes them more susceptible to diseases and pests.

Intensive vs. Extensive Agriculture

Intensive Agriculture

• Characteristics: Utilizes smaller plots of land but requires high labor input and significant investment in technology, fertilizers, and pesticides to achieve high yields.

• Typical Use: Common in densely populated areas where land is limited. Often involves growing high-value crops like vegetables, fruits, and flowers.

Extensive Agriculture

• Characteristics: Involves large areas of land with lower input of labor and capital. Yields per hectare are lower compared to intensive agriculture.

• Typical Use: Predominant in less densely populated areas, suitable for crops like wheat and corn or livestock grazing.

Commercial vs. Subsistence Agriculture

Commercial Agriculture

• Definition: Farming primarily for profit. Farmers grow cash crops and often engage in monocropping.

• Features: Focuses on marketability and yield; heavily reliant on market trends and prices.

Subsistence Agriculture

• Definition: Farming to meet the personal needs of a farmer’s family, with little to no surplus for sale.

• Features: Farmers grow a variety of crops needed for their own consumption, less reliant on market forces but more vulnerable to environmental factors.

Von Thunen Model

Overview

• Creator: Johann Heinrich von Thünen, an early 19th-century economist.

• Purpose: The model explains the optimal allocation of various agricultural activities around a central market (the CBD) based on the cost of transportation and land along with the perishability of produce.

Zones Described

1. Market Gardening and Dairying: Located closest to the city. These products are perishable and need to be sold quickly, justifying the high land costs near the CBD.

2. Forestry: Next closest to the city. Wood is heavy and difficult to transport over long distances, so having timber close to the city reduces transportation costs.

3. Extensive Field Crops (Grains and Rye): These require a lot of land and are less perishable, allowing them to be situated further from the city where land is cheaper.

4. Grazing: Located the farthest from the CBD. Livestock requires significant land for grazing, which is cheaper at greater distances from the city.

Bid Rent Theory Explained

Definition

• Bid Rent Theory: An economic principle that describes how the price and demand for real estate change as the distance from the central business district (CBD) increases. It is often used to explain various urban economic behaviors, including land use.

Dynamics

• Proximity to CBD: Land closer to the CBD is more expensive due to higher competition for limited space. This results in higher density developments, such as skyscrapers and commercial buildings, to maximize the use of expensive land.

• Agricultural Implications: As the distance from the CBD increases, land costs decrease, making it economically viable for more extensive agricultural practices that require larger, less expensive plots.

Connection Between Theories

Integration

• The Von Thunen model effectively applies the Bid Rent Theory to agricultural land use by correlating the intensity of land use with proximity to the city center. As one moves away from the CBD, the intensity of land use decreases as the cost of land decreases, accommodating less economically intense uses like grazing.

Practical Implications

• Urban Planning: Understanding these models helps urban planners and developers make decisions about land use, transportation infrastructure, and zoning.

• Agricultural Economics: Farmers and agribusinesses can use these theories to decide on the types of crops to plant and where to locate their operations relative to market locations.

Settlement Patterns

Settlement patterns describe the arrangement of dwellings in a particular area, and these patterns are influenced by various factors including economic activities, cultural practices, geographical landscape, and historical development.

Types of Settlement Patterns

1. Nucleated (Clustered): Dwellings are grouped together in a compact area. This pattern often occurs in regions where defense or community cooperation is prioritized, or where land availability is limited.

2. Dispersed: Homes are spread out across a large area. This pattern is typical in rural areas where agriculture requires extensive land use.

3. Linear: Dwellings are arranged in a line along a road, river, or other linear feature. This pattern is often seen in agricultural valleys or along transportation routes.

Association with Types of Farming

• Wheat Farming: Typically associated with dispersed settlement patterns due to the extensive land required for cultivation. This allows for large-scale production with machinery, minimizing the need for close proximity between farms.

• Wet-Rice Farming: Often found in nucleated settlements due to the intensive labor and communal water management required for rice paddies. Close-knit communities facilitate cooperation among farmers, essential for the effective management of irrigation systems.

Examples of Settlement Patterns

Clustered Farming Example

• Location: Ouchi-Juku, Japan.

• Characteristics: Characterized by closely built houses that facilitate mutual aid and community activities, essential in regions with challenging environmental conditions or where community cooperation is a traditional way of life.

Dispersed Farming Example

• Location: West Union, Iowa, USA.

• Characteristics: Farms are spread out, maximizing the use of land for large-scale agriculture, common in areas where individual farming operations are more economically viable.

Surveying Methods

Surveying methods are crucial for determining land ownership and boundaries, particularly in agricultural and urban development contexts. These methods have evolved over time, influenced by cultural, historical, and technological factors.

Key Survey Methods

1. Long-Lot System

• Description: Characterized by narrow, rectangular plots extending from rivers, roads, or canals, which provide each parcel with access to the transportation or water resources.

• Prevalence: Commonly found in regions with French influence such as Quebec and Louisiana. This method facilitated equal access to waterways and simplified irrigation and transportation.

2. Metes and Bounds

• Description: This is the oldest form of land surveying practiced in the United States, using natural landmarks and measurements to define the boundaries of parcels.

• Location: Predominantly used along the East Coast, especially in the original thirteen colonies where early settlers used natural features to demarcate their lands.

• Historical Context: Early American settlers, including notable figures like George Washington, used this method out of necessity, utilizing trees, rocks, and other landmarks to mark boundaries.

3. Township and Range

• Description: Involves dividing land into a grid of square townships and ranges. Each township is typically 6 miles by 6 miles and further subdivided into 36 sections of 1 square mile each.

• Implementation: Adopted through the Northwest Ordinance, this method provided a systematic way to organize land distribution as settlers moved westward across the United States.

• Efficiency: The grid system facilitated a more organized and equitable distribution of land, supporting orderly development and sale of land in newly settled areas.

Implementation and Impact

• Long-Lot System: Facilitates access to resources but can lead to disputes due to the narrow and elongated plots.

• Metes and Bounds: While flexible and adapted to natural topography, it can lead to irregular plot shapes and complex boundaries that are difficult to manage and sometimes ambiguous.

• Township and Range: Promotes uniformity and simplicity in property records and land transactions, making it easier to manage and less prone to disputes than metes and bounds.

Agricultural Practices by Climate Zones

Humid Equatorial Climate

• Characteristics: High humidity, significant rainfall, and stable temperatures year-round.

• Common Agriculture: Shifting cultivation is prevalent here. This involves clearing a plot of land, using it for a few years until its fertility decreases, and then moving on to a new area. Slash and burn techniques are often used to clear the land.

• Intensive Farming: Limited due to the ecological fragility of the region. However, small-scale market gardening of tropical fruits and vegetables can be found.

Temperate Climate

• Characteristics: Moderate rainfall and temperatures with distinct seasons.

• Common Agriculture: This climate is ideal for diverse agricultural activities, including grain production and mixed crop and livestock farming.

• Intensive Farming: Market gardening and mixed farming are more common in these regions due to favorable climate conditions.

Dry Climate

• Characteristics: Low rainfall, making it less suitable for crop production without irrigation.

• Common Agriculture: Extensive farming practices like ranching are common, utilizing large tracts of land to raise cattle and other livestock, which require less water than crops.

Cold Climate

• Characteristics: Cold temperatures with short growing seasons.

• Common Agriculture: Pastoral nomadism is often practiced where agriculture is not feasible. This involves the herding of reindeer, goats, or sheep across vast areas.

• Extensive Farming: Includes ranching and pastoral nomadism, suited to the sparse vegetation and vast open spaces typical of these regions.

Intensive vs. Extensive Farming Practices

Intensive Farming

• Locations: Typically found in more populated areas or where land is expensive.

• Practices: Involves high input of labor and capital to maximize productivity on smaller plots. Examples include market gardening, mixed crop and livestock systems, and plantation agriculture.

Extensive Farming

• Locations: Common in less populated areas where land is cheaper.

• Practices: Involves lower labor and capital input, focusing on large-scale crop production and livestock grazing. Practices include shifting cultivation, ranching, and pastoral nomadism.

Globalization and Agricultural Specialization

• Impact: The specialization in agricultural products like rice in Thailand, beef in the US, bananas in Ecuador, and wheat in Russia shows how countries optimize their resources to participate in the global market.

• Technological Advances: Improvement in agricultural technologies and practices has increased the efficiency of food production, contributing to the globalization of agriculture. These advancements help manage the increased demand from global markets and improve the economic output of agricultural sectors.

Economies of Scale

• Definition: Refers to the cost advantages that enterprises get due to their scale of operation, with cost per unit of output generally decreasing with increasing scale as fixed costs are spread out over more units of output.

• Application in Agriculture: Larger farms and agricultural corporations use economies of scale to lower costs and increase production. They invest in advanced technologies and bulk supplies to maximize yields and reduce expenses, contributing to their competitive edge in the global market.

Commodity Chains Explained

• Definition: Commodity chains describe the series of steps involved from the production of a good to its final purchase by the consumer. This chain encompasses a variety of activities including production, processing, and distribution.

• Example with Coffee:

  • Farmer: Grows and harvests coffee beans.

  • Extractor: Processes the beans, often involving drying and roasting.

  • Shipper: Transports the processed coffee to different markets.

  • Distributor: Manages the distribution to various retail outlets.

  • Retailer: Sells the final product to consumers.

Global Food Distribution Dynamics

The global distribution of food involves complex interactions between political, economic, and logistical factors. These elements determine how effectively agricultural products are exchanged globally.

Key Components

1. Neocolonialism:

   • Modern form of colonial influence where powerful countries exert control over less developed countries through economic means rather than direct political control.

   • Involves economic dependencies where developed countries dominate trade relations and resource extraction, often under the guise of political independence.

2. Fair Trade:

   • Aims to provide more equitable trade relationships between developed and developing countries.

   • Ensures farmers in developing countries receive fair prices for their products, helping them to compete in the global market.

   • Protects against exploitation and ensures a stable income for producers.

3. Subsidies:

   • Financial incentives provided by governments to support local farmers, ensuring stability in domestic food production.

   • Helps control the price volatility in agricultural markets and ensures a consistent supply of agricultural commodities.

4. Infrastructure:

   • Essential for the efficient movement of goods from farms to markets.

   • Includes transportation systems like roads, ports, and railways.

   • Facilitates the domestic and international distribution of food products, enhancing the connectivity of global markets.

Impact and Considerations (Global Food Distribution)

• Economic and Political Influence: The dynamics of food distribution can reinforce economic disparities and power imbalances between nations. For example, wealthier nations may influence agricultural practices in developing countries through trade policies and investment.

• Sustainability and Fairness: While mechanisms like fair trade seek to improve equity in global agriculture, challenges such as sustainability and the environmental impact of long supply chains remain.

• Role of Technology: Advances in logistics, transportation, and communication technology continue to reshape global food distribution, potentially reducing costs and improving efficiency.

Land Cover Change (Consequence)

• Definition: Refers to the transformation of the natural landscape, often due to agricultural expansion or urban development.

• Example: In the Mekong Basin of Southeast Asia, significant changes have been observed in the tree line between 1997 and 2010. The reduction in forested areas is largely due to the expansion of agricultural land, illustrating a clear shift in land cover.

Environmental Effects Due to Agricultural Practices

Desertification

• Definition: This process occurs when fertile land becomes desert, typically as a result of drought, deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture.

• Impact: Reduces the land's ability to support crops, wildlife, and affects the livelihoods of those who depend on the land.

Soil Salinization

• Cause: Often a result of improper irrigation practices where water containing salts evaporates, leaving the salts behind which accumulate in the soil.

• Consequences: Makes the soil toxic for plants, reducing agricultural productivity and leading to loss of arable land.

Increased CO2 Emissions

• Sources: Major contributors include the use of fossil fuel-powered machinery like tractors and the decomposition of organic materials in intensive farming practices.

• Impact: Contributes to the greenhouse effect, leading to global warming and climate change.

Draining of Wetlands

• Purpose: Wetlands are often drained to create more space for farmland.

• Consequences: Leads to loss of biodiversity, disruption of natural water filtration systems, and increased vulnerability to floods.

Challenges in Modern Agriculture

Distribution Issues

• Problem: The logistical challenge of exporting food to poorer countries before it spoils is a significant barrier to alleviating global hunger.

• Consequences: Leads to waste of resources and continued food scarcity in regions that desperately need imports.

Impact of Natural Disasters

• Effects: Natural disasters like floods, droughts, and hurricanes can devastate crops and livestock, leading to immediate food shortages and long-term economic damage in agricultural communities.

Urban Expansion

• Issue: Suburban sprawl is increasingly encroaching on farmland, reducing the amount of land available for food production.

• Result: Limits agricultural output and contributes to the loss of agricultural biodiversity.

Food Deserts

• Definition: Areas in urban and rural settings where there are limited or no accessible sources for fresh, affordable foods, particularly affecting low-income neighborhoods.

• Impact: Residents in these areas often have limited access to healthy food options, which can lead to nutritional deficiencies and health problems.

Patterns of Food Production and Innovative Solutions

Despite these challenges, there are innovative approaches being implemented to improve food security and sustainability in agriculture:

Urban Farming

• Concept: Growing food in urban areas through methods like rooftop gardens, vertical farming, and community gardens.

• Benefits: Provides fresh produce directly in urban centers, reducing the need for long transport routes and promoting local consumption.

Community-Supported Agriculture (CSA)

• Model: Members of the community pay a subscription fee to a local farm and in return, receive a share of the produce throughout the farming season.

• Advantages: Provides farmers with a stable income and reduces the financial risks associated with farming; consumers enjoy fresh, locally-grown food regularly.

Value-Added Specialty Crops

• Explanation: Crops that are processed to add value beyond the basic raw product. Examples include making jams, jellies, or specialty cheeses.

• Economic Impact: Allows farmers to earn a higher profit margin by selling processed goods rather than raw products.

Gender Roles in Agriculture

Women in the Agricultural Workforce

• Current Statistics: Women constitute about 40% of the global agricultural labor force.

• Regional Differences: In regions with high levels of subsistence farming, women make up approximately 70% of the agricultural workforce.

• Implication: This indicates that women are primarily responsible for feeding their families in many underdeveloped areas.

Challenges Faced by Women in Agriculture

• Land Ownership: In many parts of the world, women are often denied the right to own land, which limits their ability to invest in and benefit from agricultural production.

• Access to Credit: Women frequently face barriers to obtaining credit, which restricts their ability to purchase seeds, fertilizers, and other necessary inputs for farming.

• Farming Tools and Technologies: There is a significant gender gap in access to modern farming tools and technologies, further hindering women's productivity in agriculture.

Importance of Gender Equality in Agriculture

• Increasing Yields: Providing women with the same rights and access to resources as men can significantly increase agricultural yields.

• Economic Benefits: Supporting women in agriculture can lead to improved economic outcomes for families and communities.

• Combating Hunger: Enhancing the productivity of women farmers is a crucial step towards achieving global food security and ending world hunger.