8.11 - The Civil Rights Movement Expands

The Women’s Movement

• The 1960s saw a renewal of the women’s movement due to factors like increased education and employment for women, the civil rights movement, and the sexual revolution.

• Some feminists rejected traditional social, economic, and political values and advocated for changes in sexual norms.

• Betty Friedan’s Impact:

  • Friedan’s book The Feminine Mystique (1963) encouraged middle-class women to pursue professional careers alongside traditional roles as wives and mothers.

  • In 1966, Friedan co-founded the National Organization for Women (NOW) to advocate for equal treatment, especially in employment.

  • Congress passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to prohibit sex-based discrimination, though enforcement was initially weak.

• Equal Rights Amendment (ERA):

  • In 1972, Congress passed the ERA, which aimed to guarantee equality under the law regardless of sex.

  • The ERA failed to be ratified by the required 38 states, partly due to conservative backlash against feminism and concerns over traditional gender roles.

• Achievements:

  • Despite the ERA's failure, the movement led to significant changes in attitudes and hiring practices, with more women entering traditionally male-dominated professions like business, law, medicine, and politics.

  • The concept of the "glass ceiling" continued, but American society became progressively less male-dominated.

The Warren Court and Individual Rights

• Earl Warren served as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1953 to 1969, significantly shaping the nation, much like John Marshall did in the early 1800s.

• Warren's most notable decision was in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), which was a landmark case in race relations, ending legal segregation in public schools.

• The Warren Court in the 1960s made several key rulings that had a lasting impact on the criminal justice system, state political systems, and individual rights. Unlike earlier courts that focused on protecting property rights, the Warren Court emphasized protecting individual rights.

Criminal Justice

• The Warren Court made several important rulings regarding defendants' rights:

  • Mapp v. Ohio (1961): Established that illegally seized evidence cannot be used in court against the accused.

  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Required state courts to provide attorneys for defendants who cannot afford one.

  • Escobedo v. Illinois (1964): Extended the right to have an attorney present during police questioning.

  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Required police to inform arrested individuals of their rights, including the right to remain silent, known as "Miranda rights."

Gay Rights Movement

• The movement gained momentum after a police raid on the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in New York City, sparked a riot in 1969.

• Gay activists encouraged openness about sexual identity and fought against discrimination and violence.

• By the mid-1970s, homosexuality was no longer classified as a mental illness, and the federal Civil Service lifted its ban on employing homosexuals.

• In 1993, President Clinton introduced the "don’t ask, don’t tell" policy in the military, which allowed service members to avoid disclosing their sexual orientation but still permitted expulsion for being openly gay or lesbian.