Unit 4: Learning

Classical Conditioning

• Learning: A lasting change in behavior due to experience.

• Association: Our minds naturally connect events that occur together.

Classical Conditioning: The Basics

• Definition: Learning to associate a neutral stimulus (NS) with a stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

• Pavlov’s Experiment: Pavlov discovered classical conditioning. He would ring a bell just before presenting food to the dogs. Over time, the dogs began to associate the sound of the bell with the arrival of food, causing them to salivate at the sound of the bell alone, even without the presence of food. This demonstrated the concept of classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus (the bell) becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus (food) to elicit a response.

The Classical Conditioning Process

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. (e.g., food)

2. Unconditioned Response (UCR): The unlearned, natural response to the UCS. (e.g., salivation)

3. Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that doesn't initially trigger a response. (e.g., a bell)

4. Conditioning: Repeatedly pairing the NS with the UCS.

5. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The NS becomes the CS after it triggers a response due to its association with the UCS. (e.g., the bell now triggers salivation)

6. Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS. (e.g., salivation to the bell)

Important Terms

• Acquisition: The initial learning phase when the association between the NS and UCS is formed.

• Extinction: The weakening of the CR when the UCS is no longer presented with the CS.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a weakened CR after a rest period.

• Stimulus Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to the CS.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Learning to respond only to the specific conditioned stimulus, not to similar stimuli. Example: A dog salivates to a specific bell tone, not to other sounds.

John B. Watson and Behaviorism

• Behaviorist Manifesto (1913):

  • Psychology should focus on observable behavior, not internal mental processes.

  • The goal is to predict and control behavior.

• Little Albert Experiment:

  • Watson conditioned a baby (Albert) to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise.

  • Albert's fear generalized to other furry objects.

  • The experiment was unethical and likely did not cause lasting harm due to extinction (the fear response likely faded over time).

Applications of Classical Conditioning

• Counterconditioning: A therapy technique that helps people unlearn fear responses by pairing the feared stimulus with relaxation.

• Taste Aversions: A strong dislike for a food after a single bad experience (even if the food didn't cause the illness).

Cognitive Factors in Classical Conditioning

• Rescorla's Contingency Model: Emphasizes that for learning to occur, the neutral stimulus must reliably predict the unconditioned stimulus.

• Insight Learning (Wolfgang Kohler): The sudden realization of a solution to a problem ("aha" moment).

Biological Preparedness

• Animals and humans are predisposed to learn certain associations faster than others, especially those related to survival.

• Taste aversions are an example of biological preparedness, helping us avoid poisonous foods.

Operant Conditioning

Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but isn't demonstrated until there's a reason (reinforcement) to do so. Example: You learn the route to school by riding with a friend, but you don't demonstrate that knowledge until you drive yourself.

Thorndike's Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

B.F. Skinner and the Skinner Box:

• Skinner used a special chamber ("Skinner box") to study how animals learn through rewards and punishments.

• This box allowed precise control over the environment and recorded animal responses.

Shaping Behavior

• Shaping: Gradually guiding an animal's actions toward a desired behavior by rewarding successive approximations (behaviors that get closer and closer to the target behavior).

Reinforcers: Strengthening Behavior

• Reinforcer: Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

• Primary Reinforcer: Satisfies a biological need (e.g., food, water, warmth).

• Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcer: Gains its power through association with a primary reinforcer (e.g., money, grades, praise).

• Immediate Reinforcer: Occurs right after the behavior (e.g., getting a treat for sitting).

• Delayed Reinforcer: Occurs after a delay (e.g., getting a paycheck at the end of the week).

Positive Reinforcement: Strengthens a response by presenting a positive stimulus after the behavior. Example: Giving a child a sticker for completing a chore.

Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens a response by removing an unpleasant stimulus. Example: Taking medicine to get rid of a headache.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior every time it happens. Useful for establishing new behaviors.

• Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time. Makes behaviors more resistant to extinction.

• Fixed-Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses. Example: Getting a reward after every 5 correct answers.

• Variable-Ratio: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses. Example: Slot machines.

• Fixed-Interval: Reinforcement after a set amount of time. Example: Getting paid every two weeks.

• Variable-Interval: Reinforcement after an unpredictable amount of time. Example: Pop quizzes.

Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

• Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior. Example: Getting a speeding ticket.

• Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus after a behavior. Example: Losing TV privileges.

Cognitive Maps and Latent Learning

• Edward Tolman's research with rats showed that they could learn a maze even without immediate reinforcement, suggesting they formed a mental map (cognitive map) of the environment.

• Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without reinforcement but is demonstrated later when there's an incentive.

• Cognitive Maps (Edward Tolman): Mental representations of our surroundings that we develop through experience, even without direct reinforcement.

• Biological Predispositions: Natural tendencies that make certain behaviors easier to learn.

  • Instinctive Drift (Breland & Breland): The tendency for animals to revert to innate behaviors even after being trained.

Observational (Social) Learning

• Modeling: Learning by observing and imitating others. We're more likely to model those who are:

  • Similar to us

  • Successful or admirable

  • Rewarded for their behavior

  • Consistent in their actions and words

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

1. Attention: Paying attention to the model's behavior.

2. Retention: Remembering the observed behavior.

3. Reproduction: Being able to imitate the behavior.

4. Motivation: Having a reason to perform the behavior (e.g., expecting a reward or avoiding punishment).

• Bobo Doll Experiment: Showed that children learn aggressive behavior by observing adults acting aggressively.

Types of Motivation

• Intrinsic Motivation: Doing something for the enjoyment and satisfaction of the activity itself. Example: Playing a sport because you love it.

• Extrinsic Motivation: Doing something to earn a reward or avoid a punishment. Example: Studying for a test to get a good grade.