Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land-Use Patterns and Processes

Site and Situation

• Site: Refers to the physical characteristics of a location.

  • Example: Los Angeles includes its people, resources, and landmarks like Disneyland.

• Situation: Involves the external factors and surroundings that influence a location's development.

  • Example: LA's situation includes the Pacific Ocean and the Agricultural Valley of Central California.

Origins of Urbanization

• Necessary Conditions:

  1. Agricultural Surplus: Extra food to support a growing population.

  2. Social Stratification: A social hierarchy to organize and structure society.

Hearths of Urbanization

• Primary Hearths:

  • Mesoamerica

  • Peru

  • Nile Valley

  • Mesopotamia (Fertile Crescent) between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers

  • Indus River Valley

  • Huang He (Yellow) River Valley

• Secondary Hearths:

  • Greece and Rome, where urbanization ideas spread to modern-day European countries and eventually to the United States.

Urbanization in the United States

• Initial Urbanization:

  • Started on the East Coast and spread westward with the idea of Manifest Destiny.

  • The Second Agricultural Revolution led to mechanization, reducing the need for farmers and pushing people towards urban factory jobs.

Important Concepts to Remember

• Agricultural Surplus: Essential for supporting a larger, sedentary population.

• Social Stratification: Needed for societal organization and urban growth.

• Primary Hearths: Crucial for understanding the origins of urbanization.

• Secondary Hearths: Shows the spread of urbanization ideas to Europe and beyond.

• Mechanization and Urban Migration: Show the shift from rural to urban living due to technological advancements in agriculture.

Megacities and Metacities

• Metacities: Cities with a population of 20 million or more.

• Megacities: Cities with a population of 10 million or more.

These cities are often found in semi-peripheral and peripheral regions, reflecting the growing interconnectedness and globalization. This interconnectedness, driven by economic growth, brings jobs and affordable production to countries, benefiting global consumers. However, it also exacerbates income inequality, decimating local businesses and exploiting cheap labor markets.

Primate City and Rank-Size Rule

• Primate City: A city that dominates a country's politics and population.

  • Example: Mexico City with a population of 12 million, significantly larger than the next city.

• Rank-Size Rule: The rank of a city is used as the denominator, and that fraction is multiplied by the population of the largest city.

  • Example: In the United States:

    • New York (largest city): 8 million

    • Los Angeles (second city): ½ × 8 million=4 million (approximate population)

    • This pattern continues for other cities.

Exceptions exist, such as in Australia, which does not strictly follow the rank-size rule but can still be considered under its framework.

Central Place Theory (CPT)

The Central Place Theory explains the number, size, and location of human settlements in a region.

• Hierarchy of Settlements:

  • City: Largest settlement with the most extensive hinterland.

  • Town: Smaller than a city, with a smaller hinterland.

  • Village/Hamlet: Smallest settlements, most frequent, with the smallest hinterlands.

• Example: Uruapan, Mexico:

  • City Level: Uruapan, a large city with extensive infrastructure including an airport, global brands (Starbucks, Pizza Hut), and high residential and commercial density.

  • Town Level: Smaller cities with fewer global brands, still featuring essential services like hotels, banks, and restaurants.

  • Village/Hamlet Level: Smallest settlements with narrow streets, fewer buildings, and less commercial activity.

Hinterland: The area served by a central place. Larger cities have a wider hinterland compared to smaller towns and villages.

Placelessness: The loss of unique cultural identity in places due to the dominance of global corporations (e.g., KFC, Pizza Hut).

Settlement Density: Larger cities have higher building and population density, while smaller settlements have lower density and fewer services.

Key Points of CPT:

• Settlement Distribution: Larger settlements are fewer and spaced further apart; smaller settlements are more frequent.

• Service Range: Larger cities offer a wider range of services and goods that attract people from farther distances.

• Economic Activity: Cities with greater economic activity attract more infrastructure and global businesses.

Urban Models

Concentric Zone Model

• Origin: Modeled after Chicago.

• Structure:

  1. Central Business District (CBD): The core with the highest density of commercial activity.

  2. Zone of Transition: Typically lower-class residential areas, often containing deteriorating housing.

  3. Zone of Independent Workers' Homes: Middle-class residential areas.

  4. Zone of Better Residences: Higher-class residential areas.

  5. Commuter Zone: Suburban areas where people live and commute to the CBD for work.

• Pattern: Lower-class areas are closest to the CBD, transitioning outward to middle and upper-class areas.

Hoyt-Sector Model

• Structure:

  • Divided into pie-shaped sectors radiating out from the CBD.

  • Key Features:

    • Transportation and Industry: Sectors extending out from the CBD along transportation routes (originally railways).

    • Residential Sectors: Higher-income residential areas are farther from industrial sectors, typically along scenic routes or desirable locations.

    • Industrial Sectors: Located adjacent to transportation routes and lower-income housing.

• Pattern: Lower-class housing is adjacent to industrial and transportation sectors, while higher-class housing is in sectors away from these areas.

Multiple Nuclei Model

• Structure:

  • A city with multiple centers or "nuclei" of activity rather than a single CBD.

  • Key Features:

    • CBD: One of several focal points.

    • Manufacturing Areas: Close to lower-class residential areas due to affordability and proximity to jobs.

    • Residential Suburbs: Upper-class residential areas are further from industrial zones and closer to peripheral nuclei.

    • Outlying Business Districts: Secondary business centers that develop due to suburbanization.

• Pattern: Decentralized urban growth with multiple centers of activity. Lower-class housing is near industrial areas, while upper-class housing is in more desirable suburban locations.

Key Points Across Models

• Class Segregation: Lower-class areas are typically not adjacent to upper-class areas.

• Industrial Proximity: Lower-class areas are closer to industrial and manufacturing zones due to job proximity.

• Transportation Influence: Access to transportation routes significantly affects the layout and development of residential and industrial areas.

• Suburbanization: The development of suburbs further from the CBD, especially in the Multiple Nuclei Model, due to the availability of automobiles and regional planning.

Borchert's Epochs of Urbanization

Overview: Borchert's model theorizes that urban development correlates with the predominant transportation methods available during different historical periods. Let's explore each epoch using the analogy of Red Dead Redemption 2 (RDR2), which mirrors many of these urbanization ideas.

1. Wagon and Sail Epoch (1790-1830)

• Characteristics:

  • Pre-industrial Era: Limited to human and animal-powered transportation.

  • Urban Development: Constrained within a small radius from the Central Business District (CBD).

  • Impact: Slow travel meant people preferred to settle close to the city center.

• Example in RDR2: Travel by wagon, which is slow and limits how far people can move from the central area.

2. Iron Horse Epoch (1830-1870)

• Characteristics:

  • Introduction of Railroads: Regional development of rail systems.

  • Urban Expansion: Allowed people to settle further from the CBD, extending the hinterland.

• Example in RDR2: Small towns developing along the early railroad tracks, enabling settlements further from the main city but still within a regional scope.

3. Steel Rail Epoch (1870-1920)

• Characteristics:

  • Transcontinental Railroads: Large-scale development of railroads connecting distant cities.

  • Urban Growth: Significant expansion of urban areas, particularly in the Midwest.

  • Key Cities: Development of major cities like Kansas City and Omaha.

• Example in RDR2: Expansion of urban areas along the extensive rail network, reflecting how the transcontinental railroads facilitated wider urban growth.

4. Automobile Epoch (1920-1970)

• Characteristics:

  • Automobiles: Introduction of personal vehicles, freeing people from the constraints of rail travel.

  • Suburbanization: Enabled suburban growth as people could live further from the city center and commute by car.

• Example: Model T cars replacing wagons and horses, allowing for the development of suburban areas around the main urban centers.

5. High Tech Epoch (1970-present)

• Characteristics:

  • High Tech Industries: Growth of urban areas around technology hubs, colleges, and universities.

  • Modern Urban Development: Includes the rise of areas like Silicon Valley, focusing on high-tech industries and innovation.

• Example: Urban development around tech hubs and educational institutions, reflecting the shift towards a knowledge-based economy.

Key Points

• Urbanization Patterns: Each epoch shows how transportation advancements influenced the expansion and development of urban areas.

• Transportation Methods: From wagons to railroads to automobiles, each stage provided new ways for people to move and settle.

• Economic and Technological Influence: The high tech epoch shows the importance of technology and education in modern urban development.

Foreign Urban Models

Common Features

• Industrial/Manufacturing Zone: Close to poorer regions due to pollution and access to work.

• Traditional CBD Variations:

  • Latin American Model: Market, CBD, and a Spine.

  • Southeast Asian Model: Port Zone.

  • Sub-Saharan African Model: Three different CBDs (Colonial, Traditional, Market).

• Infrastructure Integration: Roads and freeways directly within the models (notably in Latin American and Sub-Saharan African models).

Key Takeaways

• Interconnectedness: Urban models often reflect the influence of historical and geographic factors unique to each region.

• Socioeconomic Disparities: Proximity to industrial zones, CBD structures, and the mix of classes reveal significant socio-economic divides.

• Colonial Legacy: Especially in Sub-Saharan African and Southeast Asian models, the impact of colonialism is evident in urban layouts and ethnic distributions.

Galactic City Model

• Combination of Edge Cities: This model includes multiple edge cities, each with its own specialized function or region.

• Decentralization: Demonstrates the spread of various urban functions away from the central city.

• Connectivity: Edge cities are loosely connected by freeways.

• Example: Tysons Corner, Virginia.

Edge Cities

• Definition: Large nodes of retail activities, such as malls, medical buildings, and commercial offices, located on the peripheries of urban areas.

• Commercial Nature: Primarily commercial and retail hubs that can see a decrease in population at night as people return to their homes in other areas.

• Impact:

  • Increased Traffic: Due to the reliance on freeways, edge cities can contribute to higher traffic congestion.

  • Environmental Impact: Higher levels of traffic are directly correlated with increased carbon monoxide and pollution.

Key Characteristics of Edge Cities

1. Retail and Commercial Hubs: They contain large shopping centers, office complexes, and medical facilities.

2. Population Patterns: They experience a decline in population during the night as they are not primarily residential areas.

3. Infrastructure: Reliance on a network of freeways and highways for connectivity.

4. Environmental Concerns: Increased traffic leads to higher pollution levels.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Data

Qualitative Data

• Definition: Non-numerical data that captures the quality or essence of experiences, observations, and interviews.

• Examples:

  • Interviews: Conversations with residents about their experiences with traffic.

  • First-hand Accounts: Personal stories and anecdotes about daily commutes.

  • Field Work: Observations of traffic patterns and behaviors in downtown areas.

  • Surveys: Open-ended questions about how traffic affects daily life.

Quantitative Data

• Definition: Numerical data that can be measured and quantified, often used to identify patterns and correlations.

• Examples:

  • Number of Accidents: Statistical data on traffic accidents in a city.

  • Traffic Tickets: Counts of traffic violations issued over a period.

  • CO2 Emissions: Measurement of carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere.

  • Average Traffic Speeds: Data collected using speed sensors or GPS tracking.

Zoning

Zoning is the process of dividing a city or region into sections reserved for different purposes such as residential, commercial, and industrial. It is a crucial part of urban planning and helps to regulate the development and use of land within the city.

Types of Zoning

• Low-Density Residential:

  • Description: Areas designated for houses and single-family homes.

  • Example: Suburban neighborhoods with detached houses.

• High-Density Residential:

  • Description: Areas for apartment complexes and condominiums.

  • Example: Urban areas with multi-story residential buildings.

• Low-Density Commercial:

  • Description: Areas for small businesses and single-story offices.

  • Example: Convenience stores like 7-Eleven, small shops, and office buildings.

• High-Density Commercial:

  • Description: Zones for larger commercial buildings, including skyscrapers.

  • Example: Downtown areas with high-rise office buildings and commercial centers.

Redlining and Blockbusting

Redlining and blockbusting are discriminatory practices that have significantly impacted urban development and housing opportunities in the United States.

Redlining

• Definition: Redlining was a practice where banks and insurance companies would refuse or limit loans, mortgages, and insurance within specific geographic areas, especially those with high minority populations.

• Impact: This practice prevented minorities from purchasing homes in wealthier neighborhoods, perpetuating racial and economic segregation.

• History:

  • Began in the 1930s with the Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) creating maps that marked minority neighborhoods in red, indicating they were high-risk for loans.

  • Outcome: Minority communities were denied the opportunity for homeownership and investment, leading to generational economic disparities.

  • Outlawed: The Fair Housing Act of 1968 made redlining illegal, but its effects are still seen today in many urban areas.

Blockbusting

• Definition: Blockbusting was a practice where real estate agents would scare white homeowners into selling their homes at low prices by suggesting that racial minorities were moving into the neighborhood, which would supposedly decrease property values.

• Process:

  • Real estate agents would then sell these homes at higher prices to minority families, often profiting from the resulting turnover.

  • This practice contributed to white flight, where white families moved further out into the suburbs, increasing racial segregation.

Suburbanization

Suburbanization refers to the movement of people from city centers to the outskirts, creating suburbs. This process has shaped much of the urban landscape in the United States.

Forms of Suburbs

• Exurbs:

  • Description: Suburbs located beyond the main suburban areas, typically more rural and less densely populated.

  • Example: Areas at the fringe of metropolitan regions that are still within commuting distance to the city.

• Boomburbs:

  • Description: Suburban areas experiencing rapid growth, often becoming cities in their own right.

  • Example: Cities like Irvine, California, that have seen substantial population increases and urban development.

Historical Context: Levittown

• Levittown: One of the first mass-produced suburbs in the United States, developed in the late 1940s and early 1950s. It was initially built to provide affordable housing for returning World War II veterans and their families.

• Discrimination: The original leases in Levittown included clauses that prevented minority families from purchasing homes, reflecting the widespread discrimination in housing during that period.

Urban Sustainability

Urban sustainability focuses on creating cities that can maintain and improve the quality of life for their inhabitants while minimizing negative impacts on the environment. This involves addressing issues like urban sprawl, pollution, and resource consumption through various strategies and urban planning techniques.

Strategies for Urban Sustainability

1. Urban Walkability and Public Transit:

   • Urban Walkability: Promoting pedestrian-friendly infrastructure, such as sidewalks, bike lanes, and pedestrian zones, to reduce the dependence on cars.

   • Public Transit: Encouraging the use of buses, trains, and other public transportation options to decrease traffic congestion and lower carbon emissions.

2. New Urbanism:

   • Definition: An urban design movement promoting environmentally friendly habits by creating walkable neighborhoods with a diverse range of housing and jobs.

   • Example: Baldwin Park in Florida, which integrates commercial areas with residential spaces, emphasizing pedestrian zones and small plazas to limit car use.

3. Brownfielding:

   • Definition: Redeveloping previously used industrial or commercial sites (brownfields) into new, usable urban areas.

   • Uses: Transforming old factories into malls, shopping centers, or apartment complexes to revitalize and reuse urban space.

4. Greenbelts:

   • Definition: Surrounding urban areas with parks, forests, or farmland to limit urban sprawl and provide green spaces for recreation and environmental benefits.

   • Example: London, UK, is known for its extensive greenbelt, which helps control the city's expansion and offers natural areas within easy reach of residents.

5. Infilling:

   • Definition: Increasing urban density by developing vacant or underused land within existing urban areas.

   • Example: Converting a single-family home into an apartment complex to maximize the use of available space and accommodate more people within the same area.

Challenges to Urbanization

While urbanization and sustainable development strategies offer many benefits, they also present significant challenges that need to be addressed to ensure equitable and sustainable growth. Here are some key challenges:

Gentrification

• Definition: Gentrification is the process where urban redevelopment and improvements in infrastructure increase property values and living costs, often displacing lower-income residents.

• Effects:

  • Indirect Segregation: As property values rise, lower-income residents who can no longer afford higher rents are pushed out, leading to de facto segregation.

  • Loss of Cultural Identity: Redevelopment can erase historical and cultural landmarks, changing the character of neighborhoods.

  • Example: The construction of the LA Rams' SoFi Stadium in Inglewood has led to rising property values in the surrounding lower-income areas, potentially leading to gentrification and displacement of long-time residents.

Infrastructure Development

• Economic Infrastructure:

  • Components: Bridges, roads, public transit systems, powerlines, and airports.

  • Impact: These infrastructures are crucial for economic development as they facilitate trade, create jobs, and enable efficient transportation.

• Social Infrastructure:

  • Components: Schools, hospitals, and community centers.

  • Impact: These infrastructures are essential for social development, providing education, healthcare, and creating a sense of community.

Environmental Challenges

• Urban Sprawl: Uncontrolled expansion of urban areas leads to increased pollution, loss of natural habitats, and greater demand for resources.

• Pollution: Increased vehicle emissions and industrial activities contribute to air and water pollution, adversely affecting health and the environment.

• Resource Management: Urban areas require significant water, energy, and other resources, leading to over-extraction and depletion of natural resources.

Social and Economic Inequality

• Housing Affordability: As cities grow and become more desirable, the cost of living increases, making housing unaffordable for many residents.

• Access to Services: There is often unequal access to essential services like healthcare, education, and transportation, particularly for marginalized communities.

• Employment Opportunities: While urban areas may offer more job opportunities, the competition and demand can also lead to unemployment and underemployment for certain segments of the population.

Urban Planning and Governance

• Coordination: Effective urban planning requires coordination between multiple levels of government and various stakeholders, which can be challenging.

• Regulation and Enforcement: Ensuring that development follows sustainable practices and regulations can be difficult, especially in rapidly growing cities.

• Public Participation: Involving community members in planning processes is crucial but can be challenging due to varying interests and levels of engagement.