7.3 - The Spanish-American War and Foreign Policy

Jingoism and War Introduction

• In the 1890s, the United States experienced a surge in jingoism, a form of aggressive nationalism that fueled the demand for a more assertive foreign policy. The combination of economic interests, moral concerns, and sensationalist journalism set the stage for the Spanish-American War, with Cuba and the Philippines becoming focal points of U.S. intervention.

Causes of the Spanish American War

• Cuban Revolt: Cuban nationalists resumed their struggle for independence from Spain in 1895. Spain's harsh response, led by General Valeriano Weyler, who created concentration camps where many died, earned him the nickname "The Butcher" in the U.S. press, increasing American sympathy for the Cuban cause.

• Yellow Press: Sensationalist newspapers like Joseph Pulitzer's New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal exaggerated and fabricated stories of Spanish atrocities in Cuba. This "yellow journalism" stirred public opinion and increased calls for U.S. intervention.

• De Lôme Letter (1898): The publication of a letter by Spanish diplomat Dupuy de Lôme, which criticized President McKinley, sparked outrage in the U.S., as it was seen as an insult to national honor.

• Sinking of the Maine: The explosion of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898, killing 260 Americans, was blamed on Spain by the yellow press, further inflaming public opinion, although later investigations suggested it was an accident.

McKinley’s War Message

• President McKinley, pressured by public opinion and the media, sent a war message to Congress in April 1898, citing humanitarian concerns, the protection of U.S. citizens, economic interests, and the need to restore peace in Cuba as reasons for intervention.

Teller Amendment

• The Teller Amendment, passed by Congress in 1898, declared that the United States had no intention of taking political control of Cuba and that the Cuban people would control their own government once peace was restored.

Peace Treaty and U.S. Gains

• The Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10, 1898, ended the Spanish-American War. The U.S. gained recognition of Cuban independence, acquired Puerto Rico and Guam, and took control of the Philippines in exchange for a $20 million payment to Spain. This expansion marked a significant shift in U.S. foreign policy toward imperialism.

Philippine Situation

• The U.S. took control of the Philippines after defeating Spain, but faced strong resistance from Filipino nationalists led by Emilio Aguinaldo, who had initially allied with the U.S. The resulting Philippine-American War lasted three years and led to significant casualties on both sides. In the U.S., the annexation sparked a heated debate in Congress and among the public, centering on issues of imperialism and the moral implications of ruling a large population with a distinct culture. Critics argued that annexing the Philippines contradicted the foundational American principles of self-governance and liberty.

Cuba and the Platt Amendment

• The Platt Amendment, added to Cuba's constitution in 1901, made Cuba a U.S. protectorate. It required Cuba to avoid treaties that compromised its independence, allowed U.S. intervention to maintain order, and granted the U.S. a naval base at Guantanamo Bay.

Open Door Policy

• The Open Door Policy, proposed by Secretary of State John Hay in 1899, aimed to ensure equal trading rights for all nations in China, preventing any one power from dominating the Chinese market. This policy was a key element of U.S. efforts to expand its influence in Asia without direct territorial control.

Roosevelt's "Big Stick" Policy

• Theodore Roosevelt's "Big Stick" foreign policy emphasized military strength and readiness to assert U.S. dominance internationally, epitomized by his saying, "speak softly and carry a big stick."

• This approach aimed to enhance the U.S. as a formidable global power, using military might to achieve diplomatic objectives, particularly in the Western Hemisphere.

The Panama Canal and the Revolution

• Roosevelt played a pivotal role in the construction of the Panama Canal, essential for connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

• Frustrated by Colombia's hesitance, Roosevelt supported a local uprising leading to Panama's independence in 1903. The new Panamanian government then signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, granting the U.S. control over the Canal Zone.

• This strategic maneuver enabled the canal's completion in 1914, boosting U.S. naval and commercial power significantly.

Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

• The Roosevelt Corollary extended the Monroe Doctrine, asserting U.S. intervention in European-Latin American conflicts to enforce claims, rather than allowing direct European enforcement.

• This policy positioned the U.S. as a policing power in Latin America, justifying numerous interventions to prevent European interference and stabilize the region economically.

Great White Fleet

• The deployment of the Great White Fleet from 1907 to 1909 demonstrated burgeoning American naval power, with a fleet of U.S. Navy ships touring globally.

• The mission aimed to assert U.S. naval strength and support international respect as a rising global power.

Gentlemen's Agreement

• The Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907, an informal U.S.-Japan agreement, restricted Japanese immigration to the U.S. in exchange for American forbearance on imposing official immigration restrictions.

• This agreement aimed to reduce tensions by controlling Japanese migration to the U.S.

Taft's Dollar Diplomacy

• Taft's "Dollar Diplomacy" encouraged U.S. financial investment abroad, especially in Latin America and East Asia, to enhance U.S. influence and defer military interventions.

• It aimed to replace military action with economic power, promoting American financial investments to stabilize economies and deter foreign threats.

Wilson's Moral Diplomacy

• Woodrow Wilson's "Moral Diplomacy" promoted democracy and peace, opposing imperialistic strategies of previous administrations.

• This policy supported democratic governments worldwide and aimed to spread American moral values in foreign affairs.

Philippines and the Jones Act

• The Jones Act of 1916 granted the Philippines full territorial status, universal male suffrage, and promised future independence, reflecting Wilson's push for self-governance and anti-imperialism.

Panama Canal Tolls

• Wilson advocated for equal Panama Canal tolls for all nations, including the U.S., to promote fair trade practices and reduce international discord, particularly appeasing British concerns.