8.5 - Decolonization

Movements for Autonomy: India and Pakistan

• Indian Self-Rule: The push for Indian self-rule began in the 19th century with the formation of the Indian National Congress, led by Mohandas Gandhi in the 1920s. The movement united Hindu and Muslim groups in their desire to end British rule.

• National Congress: The Indian National Congress used mass civil disobedience as a tactic and remained a powerful force after India gained independence.

• Muslim League: Founded in 1906, the Muslim League advocated for a separate nation for Muslims.

• Disagreements: Not all Indian leaders agreed with Gandhi’s nonviolent approach or his vision for Hindu-Muslim unity, but they set aside differences until after World War II to demand independence.

• Post-War Situation: After World War II, Britain's power weakened while Indian resistance strengthened. Britain's failure to grant promised rights led to increased protests, culminating in the Royal Indian Navy Revolt in 1946, which convinced Britain it could no longer rule India.

• Division and Conflict: Muslims feared living under Hindu majority rule in an independent India, leading to the demand for a separate Muslim nation, Pakistan. Both India and Pakistan gained independence in 1947.

Decolonization in Ghana and Algeria

• Ghana's Independence:

  • Gold Coast to Ghana: Britain negotiated independence for its West African colony, the Gold Coast, which combined with British Togoland to form Ghana, the first sub-Saharan African country to gain independence in the 20th century. Ghana's independence was achieved in 1957, with Kwame Nkrumah becoming the first president in 1960.

  • Nkrumah's Leadership: Nkrumah was influenced by nationalistic ideas from the U.S. and Britain, constructing a national identity centered on a glorious past. He initiated public works and development projects, but faced criticism for driving the country into debt and allowing corruption. In 1964, Nkrumah claimed dictatorial powers, and in 1966, his government was overthrown in a military coup.

  • Pan-Africanism: Nkrumah was a strong advocate of Pan-Africanism, promoting unity across Africa and rejecting colonial intervention. He founded the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963.

• Algeria's Struggle for Independence:

  • Violent Conflict: Unlike Ghana, Algeria's path to independence was marked by significant violence. Nationalist sentiments grew after World War II, leading to the Algerian War for Independence in 1954.

  • French Resistance: France, with many settlers in Algeria, considered it a part of France and was determined to retain control. The National Liberation Front (FLN) led the fight for independence, using guerrilla warfare against French forces. The war resulted in significant casualties, with hundreds of thousands of Algerians dying, often due to street battles and widespread torture by the French military.

  • French Divisions: The war caused deep divisions within France, with the French Communist Party supporting Algerian independence, leading to violence within French cities.

  • Independence Achieved: Under President Charles de Gaulle, Algeria gained independence in 1962. However, the post-independence period saw further conflict, with a mass exodus of pro-French Algerians and settlers, leading to economic and social challenges in France.

  • Post-Independence Algeria: The FLN established a socialist authoritarian regime, and the first president was overthrown in 1965. In 1991, a civil war broke out in response to one-party rule, and although President Abdelaziz Bouteflika attempted to be more inclusive, violence persisted. The military state of emergency was lifted in 2011 in response to regional uprisings.

Comparing Ghana and Algeria

• Military Rule: Both Ghana and Algeria faced challenges under military rule, with struggles between those favoring multiparty states and those advocating for single-party socialism.

• Ghana's Transition: Ghana adopted a new constitution in 1992, facilitating the peaceful transfer of power. A source of national pride was Ghanaian leader Kofi Annan becoming UN Secretary-General in 1997.

• Algeria's Religious Tensions: In Algeria, religious tensions worsened, with the rise of a violent Islamist movement challenging mainstream Muslim power. In 1992, Algeria banned political parties based on religion after an Islamist assassinated the president.

Negotiated Independence in French West Africa

• Colonial Rule: France controlled several West African territories, including Senegal, the Ivory Coast, Niger, and Upper Volta, since the late 1800s. They used indirect rule, relying on local chiefs and leaders to maintain control.

• Investments: Over time, France invested in infrastructure like railroads and promoted agricultural development, benefiting from increased trade revenue.

• Political Movements: By the mid-1950s, various political parties (democratic, socialist, and communist) and leaders emerged in French West Africa.

• Independence: By 1960, many countries in French West Africa had successfully negotiated their independence from France.

Nationalism and Division in Vietnam

• Post-WWII Conflict: After World War II, France reoccupied southern Vietnam, leading to a struggle against Ho Chi Minh, the communist leader of North Vietnam, who sought to unite the country under communism.

• War of Independence: A war for independence from France ensued, lasting until 1954. The peace treaty split Vietnam into North and South, with elections planned for 1956 to reunite the country. However, fearing a communist victory, the elections never took place.

• Vietnam War: War broke out between the communist North and the South, with the U.S. supporting the South. The Viet Cong, South Vietnamese communists, fought a guerrilla war against U.S. troops. The war escalated, leading to significant American involvement and casualties.

• End of the War: U.S. troops began withdrawing in 1971, with the last leaving in 1975. North Vietnam quickly took control of South Vietnam, resulting in widespread casualties and destabilization in Southeast Asia.

• Post-War Vietnam: In the 1980s, Vietnam introduced market-based economic reforms and reestablished trade and diplomatic relations with the U.S.

Struggles and Compromise in Egypt

• British Influence: Although Egypt became a nominally independent kingdom in 1922, Britain retained significant control, especially over the Suez Canal. The 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty granted Egypt more autonomy but allowed British military presence.

• Nasser and the Republic: In 1952, General Gamal Abdel Nasser, along with Muhammad Naguib, overthrew the king and established the Republic of Egypt. Naguib became the first president, followed by Nasser, who promoted Pan-Arabism and blended Islam with socialism in his domestic policies.

• Land and Economic Reforms: Nasser implemented land reforms and nationalized industries, including foreign-owned banks, to establish socialist cooperatives.

• Suez Crisis: In 1956, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, leading to an international crisis. Britain, France, and Israel invaded Egypt, but pressure from the U.S. and the Soviet Union led to a peaceful resolution, with the canal becoming an international waterway under Egyptian control.

Independence and Civil War in Nigeria

• Independence: Nigeria, Africa’s most populous country, gained independence from Britain in 1960.

• Biafran Civil War: In 1967, the Igbos, a predominantly Christian group in the southeast, attempted to secede from Nigeria, declaring themselves the independent nation of Biafra. The secession movement failed, and Biafra ceased to exist by 1970.

• Post-War Nigeria: After the war, Nigeria experienced a series of military coups until the 1999 election of Olusegun Obasanjo, who led a democratic civilian government.

• Ethnic and Religious Tensions: The Nigerian government established a federation of 36 states to prevent ethnic conflicts, allowing states to adopt a dual legal system of secular law and Shariah. Despite these efforts, friction between Christian and Islamic groups persisted.

• Niger Delta Issues: The oil-rich Niger River Delta region faced ongoing problems, with locals protesting against the government and oil companies for exploiting resources without benefiting the region. Militants resorted to violence, setting fire to oil wells and pipelines.

Canada and the "Silent Revolution" in Quebec

• Historical Background: Quebec, rooted in French culture, has a long history of cultural and political division from English-speaking Canada. Efforts for Quebec’s independence have periodically surfaced.

• Quiet Revolution (1960s): The Quiet Revolution brought significant political and social changes to Quebec, with the Liberal Party enacting economic reforms that fueled desires for separation from the rest of Canada.

• French Canadian Nationalism: Nationalism grew, leading to extremist actions, including terrorist bombings in 1963. However, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, a native of Quebec, preserved Canadian unity.

• 1995 Referendum: A referendum in 1995 to make Quebec an independent nation narrowly failed, keeping Quebec part of Canada.