7.5 - World War I: Military and Diplomacy

Woodrow Wilson's Neutrality Declaration

At the outbreak of World War I, President Woodrow Wilson declared the United States neutral, emphasizing America's commitment to peace and reflecting the non-interventionist advice of past presidents like Washington and Jefferson. Despite his desire for neutrality, Wilson faced challenges in maintaining an impartial stance while safeguarding American interests and trade rights.

Freedom of the Seas

The concept of "freedom of the seas" was pivotal during World War I. Wilson insisted that neutral nations, like the U.S., should be allowed to trade with belligerent countries without hostile interference. This principle was tested by Britain's naval blockade and Germany's counter with unrestricted submarine warfare, complicating U.S. neutrality.

Submarine Warfare

Germany's reliance on submarine warfare, announced in 1915, marked a critical point in naval strategy, threatening neutral shipping and challenging international law. This aggressive tactic aimed to counteract British naval dominance and block supplies to the Allies, significantly escalating tensions with neutral nations.

Lusitania Sinking

The sinking of the Lusitania in 1915 by a German U-boat, resulting in the deaths of 1,198 passengers, including 128 Americans, provoked a major diplomatic crisis. President Wilson responded with stern warnings to Germany, emphasizing that further unrestricted submarine aggression would lead to severe consequences, thus straining U.S. neutrality.

Economic Ties with Britain and France

Though officially neutral, the U.S. developed strong economic bonds with the Allies, significantly influenced by shared financial interests and cultural ties. Despite Wilson's efforts to remain impartial, American trade with the Allies flourished, effectively supporting their war effort against the Central Powers. The U.S. economy was closely linked to the Allies, with trade quadrupling and extensive loans made to Britain and France, which further complicated claims of neutrality. These financial relationships not only bolstered the Allied war effort but also entwined the U.S. economy with their fortunes, laying the groundwork for potential conflict involvement.

Public Opinion and Propaganda

Public opinion in the U.S. was heavily swayed by British propaganda, which depicted Germany negatively, influencing American perceptions and aligning public sentiment more closely with the Allies. This atmosphere made it increasingly difficult for Wilson to maintain a stance of true neutrality.

War Debate: Preparedness vs. Opposition

The debate over U.S. preparedness showed increasing concerns about national security, leading Wilson to eventually support strengthening military capabilities. Advocates for preparedness argued that the U.S. needed to build up its military to protect itself and possibly aid the Allies. On the other hand, opposition from various groups, including Progressives, Socialists, and pacifists, reflected continued isolationist sentiment, fearing that preparing for war would inevitably lead to U.S. involvement in the conflict.

Decision for War

Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: The pivotal factor pushing the U.S. towards war was Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917. Germany declared that all ships heading to Britain would be targeted, calculating that they could force Britain to surrender before the U.S. could effectively respond, despite the risk of drawing the U.S. into the war.

Immediate Causes:

• Zimmermann Telegram: In March 1917, the U.S. public was outraged by the Zimmermann Telegram, in which Germany proposed a military alliance with Mexico against the U.S. if the U.S. entered the war. This revelation was a direct challenge to U.S. sovereignty and a catalyst for moving toward war.

• Renewed Submarine Attacks: Shortly after, Germany's submarines sank several American merchant ships. These attacks on unarmed vessels violated previous pledges by Germany and made U.S. involvement seem unavoidable.

Declaration of War: In response to these provocations, President Wilson asked Congress to declare war against Germany on April 2, 1917. He argued that the world must be made safe for democracy and emphasized the need to protect the freedom of the seas. Congress supported his request, and the U.S. formally entered World War I on April 6, 1917.

Making Peace

Peace Without Victory: Early in the war, Wilson advocated for a "peace without victory," believing that a just peace would promote democracy and self-determination. He thought that only a peace agreement that did not humiliate the defeated nations could ensure lasting peace.

Wilson's Fourteen Points: Wilson outlined his vision for post-war peace in the Fourteen Points, presented in 1918. These points called for transparent agreements, freedom of navigation, reduction of arms, and the self-determination of peoples. Crucially, they proposed the creation of a League of Nations to ensure peace and prevent future conflicts.

Treaty of Versailles: The Treaty, signed in June 1919, was a mixed realization of Wilson's goals. It imposed harsh penalties on Germany, including significant reparations, territorial losses, and military restrictions. However, it also incorporated self-determination and the League of Nations, aimed at maintaining peace through collective security and diplomatic efforts. The inclusion of the League was a personal triumph for Wilson, but the treaty's punitive aspects sowed seeds of future unrest. 

Will the United States ratify the Treaty of Versailles?

Senate Approval: President Wilson faced the challenge of securing Senate approval for the Treaty of Versailles, particularly the League of Nations section. Gaining the necessary two-thirds majority was complicated by strong opposition, especially concerning Article X, which critics argued could undermine U.S. sovereignty and force the U.S. into foreign conflicts.

Increased Partisanship: The political atmosphere was charged with partisanship. Wilson's call for voters to elect Democrats during the 1918 midterm elections backfired, leading to a Republican-controlled Senate. This shift made ratification even more challenging, with key figures like Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge leading the opposition.

Opposition to the Treaty: The Senate opposition was divided into two main groups: the Irreconcilables, who opposed U.S. membership in the League under any circumstances, and the Reservationists, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, who demanded significant changes to the covenant. Despite these divisions, Wilson opted to fight for the treaty without amendments.

Rejection of the Treaty: The Senate ultimately rejected the Treaty of Versailles. Lodge and other Republicans were particularly concerned that joining the League of Nations would prevent the U.S. from ever acting independently in foreign policy again, thus binding America to international decisions without unilateral discretion. This defeat marked a significant setback for Wilson's vision of international cooperation and collective security through the League.