7.8 - 1920s: Cultural and Political Controversies

Modernism

• Modernism was an intellectual movement among urban-based Protestants who embraced scientific knowledge and social theories.

• Influenced by the Social Gospel movement and shifts in societal roles, modernists sought to reconcile religious faith with contemporary ideas like Darwin's theory of evolution.

• They advocated for a historical and less literal interpretation of the Bible, aiming to harmonize it with modern understanding.

Fundamentalism

• Fundamentalism was rooted in rural, conservative Protestant communities that insisted on a literal interpretation of the Bible.

• Fundamentalists opposed modern scientific theories such as evolution, viewing them as threats to moral and spiritual integrity.

• This group blamed the erosion of traditional values and societal decay on modernist influences.

Revivalists on Radio

• The 1920s saw the rise of radio revivalists who spread their fundamentalist messages via this new mass communication tool.

• Figures like Billy Sunday and Aimee Semple McPherson attacked perceived moral declines associated with modern urban culture, including jazz music and communism.

Scopes Trial

• The Scopes Trial in 1925 showed the clash between modernists and fundamentalists, with John Scopes charged for teaching evolution, violating Tennessee state law.

• Prominent figures like Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan represented the opposing sides, symbolizing the broader cultural battle over science and religion.

Aftermath of the Scopes Trial

• Scopes was convicted, though the verdict was overturned on a technicality. The trial symbolized the cultural battles of the era and showed ongoing tensions over educational content.

Prohibition and the Volstead Act

• The 18th Amendment and the Volstead Act marked the start of Prohibition, which outlawed the manufacture, sale, and transport of alcohol.

• Intended to improve public morals, Prohibition led to widespread defiance, with speakeasies and bootlegging becoming rampant.

Defying Prohibition

• Public defiance was widespread, and the illegal alcohol market thrived, particularly in urban areas.

• Organized crime figures like Al Capone profited immensely from the illegal alcohol trade, showing the challenges of enforcing moral behavior through legislation.

Political Discord and the 21st Amendment

• Prohibition led to significant political discord, with Republicans largely supporting it while Democrats were divided.

• The economic pressures of the Great Depression and growing public resentment led to the repeal of Prohibition with the 21st Amendment in 1933.

Opposition to Immigration and Quota Laws

• Post-war immigration triggered nativist sentiments, leading to restrictive quota laws that targeted "undesirable" immigrants from southern and eastern Europe and Asia.

• These laws reflected broader xenophobic and isolationist trends in American society.

Revival of the Ku Klux Klan

• The 1920s saw a revival of the Ku Klux Klan, which expanded its targets to include Jews, Catholics, and immigrants, beyond its original focus on African Americans.

• At its peak, the Klan claimed millions of members and exerted significant political influence, but public exposure of its criminal activities led to its decline by the late 1920s.

Women at Home

• Despite the ratification of the 19th Amendment, women’s roles largely remained centered around homemaking and motherhood.

• Introduction of labor-saving appliances like washing machines and vacuum cleaners eased daily chores but did not alter the traditional gender roles significantly.

• Women’s domestic life continued to revolve around family care, with societal expectations maintaining the status quo of women as primary caregivers.

Women in the Labor Force

• Employment rates for women remained consistent with pre-war levels, with many working in roles traditionally seen as suitable for women, such as clerical work, nursing, teaching, and domestic jobs.

• Women faced wage disparities, earning significantly less than men for similar roles, reflecting broader societal views on gender and work.

• Urban environments offered more employment opportunities for women, although these jobs often lacked long-term career prospects.

Revolution in Morals

• The 1920s marked a noticeable shift in social and sexual norms, particularly among younger generations who challenged traditional taboos.

• Influenced by Freud’s theories on sexuality and repression, many young people embraced more liberal attitudes towards premarital sex.

• The era saw changes in fashion and social behaviors, exemplified by the emergence of the flapper culture, where young women adopted more revealing fashions and engaged in behaviors previously considered inappropriate, like smoking and driving cars.

Education

• The 1920s experienced a surge in educational enrollment, driven by a growing societal belief in the value of education and economic prosperity that allowed for greater public investment in schools.

• Compulsory education laws were more widely enacted, pushing towards universal high school education as a new national goal.

• By the end of the decade, high school graduation rates had doubled, reflecting the success of these educational policies.

African American Cultural Renaissance

Harlem Renaissance

• The Harlem Renaissance marked a flourishing of African American culture, particularly in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City.

• This cultural movement was characterized by an explosion of poetry, music, and art that explored African American identity and experience.

• Notable figures such as Langston Hughes and Duke Ellington emerged during this period, gaining national recognition for their contributions to American culture.

Cultural Impact and Challenges

• Despite facing ongoing discrimination and segregation, African American artists and musicians of the Harlem Renaissance played a critical role in shaping the cultural landscape of the 1920s.

• Jazz music, introduced by artists like Louis Armstrong, became a defining feature of the period, popular among both black and white audiences.

• The period also saw a greater public acknowledgment of African American contributions to literature, art, and music, though this did not necessarily translate into broader social acceptance or rights.

Republican Dominance

• The 1920s were marked by Republican control of both the presidency and Congress, influencing national policies towards pro-business and conservative fiscal agendas.

• This political landscape facilitated a period of economic growth, with limited government intervention in business as a hallmark of the era.