5.10 - Reconstruction

Postwar Conditions

• Economic and Social Devastation: The South faced massive destruction of infrastructure and a significant loss of livestock, leading to widespread poverty and food shortages. The majority of freedpeople began their new lives without land, money, or education, exacerbating the region's challenges.

Reconstruction Policies

• Lincoln’s Approach: Lincoln's Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction (1863) aimed to reintegrate the Southern states quickly and leniently, requiring only 10% of voters in a state to swear allegiance to the Union and accept emancipation to form a new state government. Lincoln hoped that offering a lenient restoration process would encourage loyalty among Southerners and expedite the Union’s restoration.

• Wade-Davis Bill (1864): In contrast, this Congressional bill demanded harsher terms: a majority (50%) of voters in a state must swear loyalty, and only non-Confederates could vote for new state constitutions. Lincoln vetoed this bill, preferring a more conciliatory approach to Reconstruction. This reflected the Radical Republicans' desire for stricter conditions and safeguards against former Confederates regaining power. 

• Freedmen’s Bureau: Established in 1865, this agency provided critical aid to both Black and White Americans in the postwar South. While its land redistribution efforts were largely undone by President Johnson’s amnesty to Confederates, it successfully founded thousands of schools for freedpeople, significantly impacting education and literacy.

Johnson's Reconstruction Policy

• Johnson's approach to Reconstruction was initially welcomed by Republicans for his opposition to Southern elites. His plan in May 1865 extended Lincoln's policies by disenfranchising former Confederate leaders and those with substantial wealth, although he frequently issued personal pardons, restoring many former Confederates to power. This leniency towards the wealthy planters showed his underlying White supremacist views.

Johnson’s Vetoes:

• Johnson's presidency was marked by frequent clashes with Congress, demonstrated by his prolific use of the veto—29 times in his term. Notably, he vetoed bills that would have expanded the Freedmen’s Bureau and a civil rights bill aimed at eliminating Black Codes and ensuring citizenship and equal rights for African Americans. These actions alienated many, even moderate Republicans, signaling a growing rift that would shift the control of Reconstruction from the presidency to Congress.

Congressional Reconstruction

• Frustrated by Johnson’s obstructionist tactics, Congress, dominated by the Radical Republicans by 1866, took charge of Reconstruction. This second phase was characterized by harsher measures against Southern Whites and stronger protections for freed African Americans, marking a significant shift in the Reconstruction’s direction and goals.

Introduction to Radical Republicans

• Radical Republicans, a faction within the Republican Party, championed civil rights for Black citizens. They sought to transform Southern society and were driven by fears that a reunified Democratic Party might regain dominance. Prominent leaders included Senator Charles Sumner and Representative Thaddeus Stevens.

Thirteenth Amendment

• The 13th Amendment, ratified in December 1865, abolished slavery throughout the United States. It stated, “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.” This amendment marked a significant step toward freedom, although economic hardship and political oppression continued for freed African Americans.

Civil Rights Act of 1866

• The Civil Rights Act of 1866 declared all African Americans to be U.S. citizens, nullifying the Dred Scott decision. It provided a legal shield against the Black Codes enacted in the South. To ensure the Act's permanence, Republicans sought a constitutional amendment.

Fourteenth Amendment

• Passed by Congress in June 1866 and ratified in 1868, the 14th Amendment had profound implications:

  • It granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States.

  • It required states to provide “equal protection of the laws” and “due process of law” to all citizens.

  • This amendment laid the foundation for civil rights protections, particularly from the 1950s onward.

  • Other clauses disqualified former Confederate leaders from holding office, repudiated Confederate debts, and penalized states for denying eligible citizens the vote.

Reconstruction Acts of 1867

• Over Johnson’s vetoes, Congress passed the Reconstruction Acts, dividing the South into five military districts under Union control. These acts required states to ratify the 14th Amendment and guarantee voting rights for all adult males, regardless of race, to be readmitted to the Union.

Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

• In 1867, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act to restrict Johnson from removing officials without Senate approval, aimed at protecting Radical Republicans in his cabinet. When Johnson dismissed Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, the House impeached him for violating the Act. Johnson was charged with 11 counts but was acquitted by one vote in the Senate, narrowly avoiding removal from office.

Fifteenth Amendment

• In 1869, Congress passed the 15th Amendment, ratified in 1870, which prohibited states from denying a citizen's right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. While it banned racial discrimination in voting laws, it did not prevent other voting restrictions that disproportionately affected African Americans.

Civil Rights Act of 1875

• The last major civil rights law during Reconstruction guaranteed equal accommodations in public places and prohibited exclusion of African Americans from juries. However, the act was poorly enforced, and by 1877, Congress had abandoned Reconstruction efforts.

Reconstruction in the South

• During Congressional Reconstruction, Republican-controlled governments in the South were protected by the military until they met Reconstruction requirements. Republican rule lasted from one to nine years, depending on how long it took Democrats to regain control.

Scalawags and Carpetbaggers:

• "Scalawags" were Southern Republicans, often former Whigs, who supported Reconstruction and economic development. "Carpetbaggers" were Northern newcomers who moved South after the war for various reasons, including business opportunities and humanitarian efforts.

African Americans Adjusting to Freedom:

• Freed African Americans prioritized reuniting families, education, and establishing independent communities. They founded Black churches and schools and moved to cities or new frontier states like Kansas. Black colleges such as Howard, Atlanta, Fisk, and Morehouse were established during this period.

Greed and Corruption:

• The Grant administration was marked by significant corruption.

Rise of the Spoilsmen:

• Leadership in the Republican Party shifted to political manipulators like Roscoe Conkling and James Blaine, who used patronage to their advantage.

Corruption in Business and Government:

• Business and political corruption were rampant, exemplified by scandals like Jay Gould and James Fisk's gold market scheme, the Crédit Mobilier affair, and the Whiskey Ring scandal.

Credit Mobilier Scandal:

• Involved members of Congress receiving stock to avoid investigation of profits from government subsidies for the transcontinental railroad.

Boss Tweed:

• William Tweed, the Democratic Party boss in New York City, stole $200 million from taxpayers before being exposed and imprisoned in 1871.

Election of 1872

• Reform-minded Republicans and Democrats both nominated Horace Greeley. Despite this, Grant was reelected in a landslide.

Women’s Changing Roles and Suffrage

• Women took on new roles during the war, working in factories, on farms, and as nurses. The war boosted demands for women's suffrage, although the 14th and 15th Amendments only extended voting rights to men. Wyoming Territory granted women full suffrage rights in 1869, but it took until after World War I for the 19th Amendment to be adopted, granting women the right to vote nationwide.