Unit 7: Motivation, Emotion, and Personality

Motivation

• Motivation: The factors that initiate, direct, and sustain our behavior.

Theories of Motivation

• Instinct/Evolutionary Theory:

  • Behaviors are driven by innate, biological instincts aimed at survival and reproduction.

  • Limitations:

    • Human instincts are less rigid than in animals.

    • Many behaviors are learned, not purely instinctive.

• Drive-Reduction Theory:

  • Key Idea: Physiological needs create an internal drive that motivates us to reduce the imbalance and restore homeostasis (balance).

  • Example: Hunger (need) -> Drive to eat -> Eating (drive-reducing behavior).

• Incentive Theory: We are motivated by external rewards and punishments (incentives).

  • Example: Studying for a good grade (positive incentive) or avoiding a speeding ticket (negative incentive).

• Yerkes-Dodson Law:

  • Key Idea: Performance is best at moderate levels of arousal.

  • Too Low Arousal: Boredom, lack of motivation

  • Too High Arousal: Anxiety, impaired performance

• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:

  • Key Idea: We must satisfy basic physiological and safety needs before fulfilling higher needs like love, esteem, and self-actualization.

Hunger

• Washburn's Study: Showed a link between stomach contractions and feelings of hunger.

• The Brain's Role:

  • Lateral Hypothalamus: Triggers hunger.

  • Ventromedial Hypothalamus: Signals satiety (feeling full).

Appetite Hormones: The Body's Signals

• Insulin: Decreases blood sugar, leading to hunger.

• Glucagon: Increases blood sugar, reducing hunger.

• Leptin: Hormone secreted by fat cells. When abundant, it causes the brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger.

• Orexin: Hunger-triggering hormone secreted by the hypothalamus.

• Ghrelin: Hormone secreted by empty stomach signaling hunger to the brain.

• PYY: Hormone secreted by the empty stomach signaling satiety (fullness) to the brain.

Set-Point Theory:

• Key Idea: Our body has a "weight thermostat" that tries to keep our weight stable.

• How it Works: If we fall below our set point, our body tries to increase food intake and decrease energy expenditure. The opposite happens if we go above our set point.

• Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): The body's resting rate of energy expenditure, adjusts to help maintain the set point.

Psychology of Hunger: More than Just an Empty Stomach

• External Cues: The sight and smell of food can trigger hunger even if we're not physically hungry.

• Social and Cultural Factors: Eating habits and preferences are influenced by our culture and social environment.

• Emotional Eating: Stress, anxiety, and depression can affect our eating patterns.

Eating Disorders

• Anorexia Nervosa: Intense fear of gaining weight, leading to self-starvation and extreme weight loss.

• Bulimia Nervosa: Cycles of binge eating (consuming large amounts of food) followed by purging (vomiting, laxatives, excessive exercise).

• Binge Eating Disorder: Recurring episodes of binge eating without purging.

Body Image and Sexual Motivation

• Body Image (Women):

  • Western cultures often emphasize thinness as the ideal, contributing to higher rates of eating disorders.

  • Cultures with a greater focus on appearance tend to have more body image concerns and eating disorders.

• Sexual Motivation

  • Kinsey's Research: Pioneering studies in the mid-20th century, revealed the diversity of human sexual behavior through interviews.

• Sexual Response Cycle (Masters & Johnson):

  • Excitement: Increased blood flow to genitals, arousal begins.

  • Plateau: Arousal intensifies, nearing orgasm.

  • Orgasm: Peak sexual pleasure and release, muscle contractions.

  • Resolution: Body returns to unaroused state.

• Sexual Orientation: A person's enduring sexual attraction to others.

  • Heterosexual: Attraction to the opposite sex.

  • Homosexual: Attraction to the same sex.

  • Bisexual: Attraction to both sexes.

Work and Achievement

• Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology: The application of psychological principles to the workplace.

  • Personnel Psychology: Focuses on selecting and evaluating employees.

  • Organizational Psychology: Studies how work environments and management styles influence motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.

• Achievement Motivation: The desire to excel and achieve success.

  • High Achievement Motivation: Seek challenging tasks and take pride in accomplishments.

  • Low Achievement Motivation: Avoid challenges due to fear of failure.

• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): A projective test where individuals create stories about ambiguous pictures. Their responses can reveal underlying motives and personality traits, including achievement motivation.

• Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation:

  • Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake, because it's enjoyable or satisfying.

  • Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior to receive external rewards or avoid punishment.

Motivational Conflicts

• Approach-Approach Conflict: Choosing between two desirable options.

• Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: Choosing between two undesirable options.

• Approach-Avoidance Conflict: A single goal or option has both positive and negative aspects.

Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange Theory:

  • Key Idea: Physiological arousal comes first, then we experience the emotion.

  • Example: We see a bear, our heart races, and then we feel afraid.

• Cannon-Bard Theory:

  • Key Idea: Physiological arousal and emotional experience happen simultaneously.

  • Example: We see a bear, our heart races at the same time that we feel afraid.

• Two-Factor Theory (Schachter-Singer):

  • Key Idea: Emotion depends on both physiological arousal and our cognitive interpretation of the situation.

  • Example: We see a bear, our heart races, we label the arousal as "fear" because of the context, and then we experience fear.

Physiological Similarities: Many emotions (fear, anger, love, boredom) share similar physical responses, like increased heart rate or sweating.

Two Routes to Emotion

• Zajonc & LeDoux: Some emotions are instant, without conscious thought (the "low road").

  • Example: Jumping at a loud noise before you even realize what it is.

• Lazarus, Schachter & Singer: Emotions require cognitive appraisal (conscious evaluation) of the situation.

  • Example: Seeing a bear, recognizing the danger, and then feeling afraid.

Dimensions of Emotion

• Valence: How pleasant or unpleasant an emotion is (positive or negative).

• Arousal: The intensity or activation level of an emotion (high or low).

The Brain and Emotions

• Limbic System (Amygdala): Plays a key role in fear and other emotions, especially those related to threat detection.

• Reticular Formation: Works with the thalamus and amygdala to monitor incoming information and trigger responses.

• Cerebral Cortex: Interprets events and connects them to memories and feelings.

  • Right Hemisphere: More active during negative emotions.

  • Left Hemisphere: More active during positive emotions.

The Autonomic Nervous System and Emotions

• Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates the "fight-or-flight" response during stress or unpleasant emotions.

• Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body down and promotes relaxation during pleasant emotions.

Fear

• Learned Through:

  • Conditioning: Associating a neutral stimulus with a fearful one.

  • Observation: Seeing others react with fear.

• Biological Predisposition: Fear helps us survive, and the amygdala is key to forming fear-related memories.

Anger

• Causes: Many factors, including frustration, injustice, and personal triggers.

• Health Connection: Chronic anger is linked to increased risk of heart disease.

• Healthy Expression: Controlled expression of anger can be beneficial, but venting rage doesn't usually eliminate it.

• Catharsis Hypothesis: The idea that releasing anger (venting) provides relief. Research shows this may not be effective long-term.

Happiness

• Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon: People in a good mood are more likely to help others.

• Adaptation-Level Phenomenon: We judge our happiness relative to our past experiences. We adapt to new situations, and our happiness level tends to return to a baseline. Example: Winning the lottery might bring temporary joy, but we eventually adjust to the new lifestyle.

Expressing Emotions

• Universal Facial Expressions (Paul Ekman): Basic emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust) are expressed with similar facial expressions across cultures.

• Gender Differences: Women tend to be better at reading nonverbal cues and expressing emotions than men.

• Detecting Deception:

  • Duchenne Smile: A genuine smile that involves both the mouth and eyes.

  • Polygraphs (Lie Detectors): Measure physiological arousal (heart rate, breathing, etc.) during questioning.

    • Accuracy: Controversial, often unreliable, and not admissible in many courts.

Key Points:

• Emotions: Involve a complex interplay of physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience.

• Happiness: Is influenced by both internal and external factors, and our ability to adapt to new situations.

Stress and Health

• Stress: The body's response to any demand or challenge.

• Stressor: The event or situation that triggers the stress response.

Stress Responses

• Fight-or-Flight Response (Cannon): The body's rapid, automatic response to a perceived threat.

  • Key Hormones: Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine)

  • Effects: Increased heart rate, breathing, blood sugar, and energy for immediate action.

• Slow Stress Response (Selye): The body's slower, hormonal response to ongoing stress.

  • Key Hormone: Cortisol

  • Triggered by: The hypothalamus and pituitary gland

• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) (Selye): The body's three-stage response to prolonged stress.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

• Hans Selye's Model: Describes the body's three-stage response to prolonged stress.

1. Alarm Reaction:

   • The "fight-or-flight" response kicks in.

   • Body releases stress hormones (adrenaline, cortisol) to prepare for action.

   • If the stressor continues, this stage can deplete the body's resources.

2. Resistance:

   • The body attempts to adapt to the ongoing stressor.

   • Outwardly, the person may seem fine, but internally, the body is working hard to maintain balance.

3. Exhaustion:

   • If the stress continues, the body's resources become depleted.

   • The person becomes vulnerable to illness, fatigue, and burnout.

Stress and the Immune System

• Chronic Stress: Weakens the immune system, making us more susceptible to illness.

Personality and Stress

• Type A: Competitive, driven, impatient, prone to anger and stress.

• Type B: Easygoing, relaxed, less prone to stress.

Coping with Stress

• Problem-Focused Coping:

  • Directly addressing the stressor to reduce its impact.

  • Example: If you're stressed about a test, studying more is a problem-focused approach.

• Emotion-Focused Coping:

  • Managing the emotional distress caused by the stressor.

  • Example: If you're stressed about a situation you can't control, talking to a friend or practicing relaxation techniques would be emotion-focused coping.

Remember: The best coping strategy often depends on the specific situation and the individual.

Personality Structure

• Id:

  • The primitive, instinctual part of the personality.

  • Operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of basic needs and drives (hunger, sex, aggression).

• Ego:

  • The conscious, rational part of the personality.

  • Operates on the reality principle, trying to satisfy the id's desires in socially acceptable ways.

• Superego:

  • The moral component of the personality.

  • Internalizes societal rules and values, striving for perfection.

Analogy:

• Id: The "devil" on your shoulder, urging you to indulge in impulses.

• Superego: The "angel" on your shoulder, promoting moral behavior.

• Ego: You, stuck in the middle, trying to balance the demands of the id and superego.

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

• Core Idea: Personality develops through a series of stages, each focused on a different erogenous zone (pleasure-sensitive area of the body).

Stages and Fixations

1. Oral Stage (0-1 year):

   • Pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, biting, chewing).

   • Fixation: May lead to oral habits (smoking, overeating) or dependency.

2. Anal Stage (1-3 years):

   • Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder control (toilet training).

   • Fixation: May lead to:

     • Anal Retentive: Excessive neatness and control.

     • Anal Expulsive: Messiness and disorganization.

3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years):

   • Children are curious about their genitals; children become aware of gender differences.

   • Oedipus Complex (Boys): Unconscious desire for mother, rivalry with father.

   • Electra Complex (Girls): Unconscious desire for father, rivalry with mother.

   • Resolution: Identifying with the same-sex parent and developing the superego (conscience).

4. Latency Stage (6-puberty):

   • Sexual feelings are dormant; focus on social and intellectual development.

5. Genital Stage (puberty onward):

   • Maturation of sexual interests and focus on healthy adult relationships.

Key Points:

• Fixation: Getting "stuck" at a stage due to unresolved conflicts, which can influence personality.

• Criticism: Freud's theories are controversial and lack scientific evidence.

Defense Mechanisms

• Purpose: The ego's protective methods to reduce anxiety caused by conflicts between the id and superego.

• Repression: Blocking unacceptable thoughts and feelings from consciousness.

  • Example: Forgetting a traumatic event.

• Regression: Reverting to immature behaviors to cope with stress or anxiety.

  • Example: An adult throwing a temper tantrum when they don't get their way.

• Displacement: Redirecting unacceptable impulses (usually anger) toward a less threatening target.

  • Example: Yelling at your sibling after a bad day at school.

• Projection: Attributing your own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others.

  • Example: A dishonest person accusing others of being dishonest.

• Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities.

  • Example: A person with aggressive tendencies becoming a boxer.

• Reaction Formation: Expressing the opposite of your true feelings.

  • Example: Being overly friendly to someone you dislike.

• Rationalization: Justifying your actions or thoughts with seemingly logical reasons, even if they're not the real reasons.

  • Example: Saying you didn't get the job because you didn't really want it, even though you're disappointed.

• Denial: Refusing to accept or acknowledge a painful reality.

  • Example: A person with a serious illness refusing to believe they are sick.

Remember:

• Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies used to protect the ego from anxiety.

• While they can be helpful in the short term, overuse can hinder healthy coping and self-awareness.

Projective Tests

• Purpose: Reveal hidden thoughts, feelings, and conflicts by interpreting responses to ambiguous stimuli.

• Examples:

  • Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Individuals create stories about ambiguous pictures.

  • Rorschach Inkblot Test: Individuals interpret a series of inkblots.

• Criticisms:

  • Reliability: Different interpreters may reach different conclusions.

  • Validity: Questionable whether these tests accurately measure personality or predict behavior.

Key Takeaways:

• Neo-Freudians: Built upon Freud's ideas but focused more on social and cultural influences on personality.

• Projective Tests: Attempt to tap into the unconscious, but their scientific validity is debated.

Humanistic Perspective: Emphasizing Personal Growth

• Background: Emerged in the 1960s as a reaction against Freud's negativity and behaviorism's focus on external control.

Core Belief: Humans are inherently good and have the potential for growth and self-actualization. 

Rogers' Conditions for Growth

1. Genuineness: Being open and honest with oneself and others.

2. Acceptance (Unconditional Positive Regard): Valuing and accepting others without judgment, regardless of their behavior.

3. Empathy: Understanding and sharing another person's feelings.

Assessing Personality (Rogers)

• Ideal Self vs. Real Self: Comparing how we see ourselves to how we'd like to be.

• Positive Self-Concept: When the ideal self and real self are closely aligned.

Key Points:

• Focus on the Positive: The humanistic perspective emphasizes personal growth, self-acceptance, and reaching one's full potential.

• Conditions of Worth: Can hinder personal growth by making individuals feel they need to meet certain standards to be loved or accepted.

Trait Theory: Describing Personality

• Trait: A characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in a certain way.

Key Idea: People's personalities can be described by their unique combination of traits. 

The Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN)

• Openness: Imaginative, curious, open to new experiences.

• Conscientiousness: Organized, responsible, dependable.

• Extraversion: Outgoing, energetic, talkative.

• Agreeableness: Friendly, compassionate, cooperative.

• Neuroticism: Anxious, emotionally unstable, prone to negative emotions.

Key Points:

• Trait theorists use questionnaires and other assessments to measure personality traits.

• The Big Five is a widely accepted model for understanding personality structure.

Assessing Personality: Trait Perspective

• Personality Inventories: Questionnaires designed to measure various personality traits.

  • MMPI-2 (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory): A widely used inventory that assesses personality traits and can help identify potential psychological disorders.

Social-Cognitive Perspective

• Key Idea: Personality is shaped by a complex interplay of thoughts, behaviors, and the environment.

• Reciprocal Determinism: Our thoughts, behaviors, and environment all influence each other.

  • Simplified Definition: It's a two-way street where your personality affects your actions, and your actions affect your environment, which then influences your personality further.

  • Example: A friendly person (cognitive factor) smiles at people (behavior), leading them to smile back and create a positive social interaction (environment), which reinforces their friendly personality.

• Self-Efficacy: Your belief in your ability to succeed in specific situations. High self-efficacy leads to greater confidence and motivation.

Personal Control

• Internal Locus of Control: Belief that you control your own fate.

  • Example: "I'm responsible for my own success or failure."

• External Locus of Control: Belief that outside forces or chance determine your fate.

  • Example: "Things happen to me, and there's nothing I can do about it."

• Learned Helplessness (Martin Seligman): The feeling of hopelessness and passivity that develops when you experience repeated, uncontrollable negative events.

Optimism and Personal Control

• Optimism: A generally positive outlook on life, but with a realistic understanding of challenges.

• Benefits: Associated with better health, resilience, and overall well-being.

• Caution: Excessive optimism can lead to underestimating risks.

Individualism vs. Collectivism

• Individualism:

  • Priority is given to personal goals and individual achievements.

  • Identity is defined by personal attributes and accomplishments.

  • Common in Western cultures.

• Collectivism:

  • Priority is given to the goals and well-being of the group (family, community).

  • Identity is defined by connections and relationships.

  • Common in many Eastern and Asian cultures.