3.2 - Empires: Administrations

Centralization Methods: By the end of the 16th century, European rulers centralized power by controlling taxes, the military, and aspects of religion. This led to powerful monarchies in England and absolute monarchies in France.
Different Strategies in Other Regions:
- Inca Empire: Centralized power by building temples.
- Japan: Samurai were paid salaries to maintain loyalty.
- Ottoman Empire: Used the devshirme system to establish a bureaucratic elite from captured Christian boys.

Divine Right of Kings: King James I of England believed in the divine right of kings, where the king's authority was derived directly from God, making him above the law.
Justices of the Peace (England): The Tudors relied on justices of the peace, officials selected by the gentry, to maintain peace and enforce the king’s laws. Over time, these justices became powerful, and many occupied seats in the House of Commons.
English Bill of Rights (1689): Signed by William and Mary, it assured civil liberties and required Parliament's agreement for taxation and raising an army, limiting the monarch’s powers.

French Monarchy: France moved towards an absolute monarchy where the king held complete authority. Henry IV and Louis XIII further centralized power, relying on royal officials called intendants to enforce government orders and collect taxes.
Louis XIV (The Sun King): Louis XIV embodied absolute monarchy, centralizing lawmaking and justice within himself. He kept nobles close at his palace in Versailles, limiting their independent power.

Russian Social Structure: The boyars, the noble landowning class, were at the top of the social hierarchy, followed by merchants and then peasants, who gradually became serfs bound to the land.
Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible): Ivan IV expanded Russian territory and kept the boyars under control by confiscating their lands and relocating them to Moscow. He established a loyal paramilitary force called the oprichnina, which later influenced the development of Russia's secret police.

Romanov Dynasty: Took control of Russia in 1613 after Ivan’s death, with conflicts among the Church, boyars, and tsar’s family.
Peter the Great: Peter I (1682-1725) consolidated power by defeating his half-sister and later disbanding the rebellious Streltsy. He reformed the government by creating provinces and a senate, and he sought to modernize Russia by adopting Western practices.

Devshirme System: The Ottoman sultans used the devshirme system to recruit Christian boys from conquered lands to serve in the government and military. These boys were educated, trained, and became loyal to the sultan, often serving as Janissaries in the elite forces of the Ottoman army. Some even rose to high administrative positions. Despite being termed “slaves of the state,” this system offered a path to upward mobility.

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644): After the fall of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty, the Ming Dynasty aimed to restore traditional Chinese values. They reintroduced the civil service exam, established a national school system, and reestablished the bureaucracy, which had deteriorated under Mongol rule. These efforts were part of a broader goal to erase the influence of the Yuan Dynasty.
Qing Dynasty: During the later part of Emperor Qianlong's reign, the Chinese bureaucracy became corrupt, leading to high taxes and a rebellion. The Qing government used harsh military control to suppress the rebellion and maintain its authority.

Shogun Rule: From the 12th to the 15th centuries, shoguns ruled Japan in the emperor’s name, but conflicts between powerful landholding aristocrats, known as daimyo, led to political instability. Each daimyo controlled his own territory with an army of samurai warriors.
Unification of Japan: The unification of Japan began with Oda Nobunaga, who used muskets acquired from Portuguese traders to take control of Kyoto in 1568. He unified about one-third of Japan before his assassination in 1582. His successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, continued to expand Japan’s territory, eventually controlling most of the country.
Tokugawa Shogunate (1600-1868): After Hideyoshi’s death, power shifted to Tokugawa Ieyasu, who was declared shogun in 1603. The Tokugawa shogunate centralized control over Japan by reorganizing the governance system. The country was divided into 250 territories (hans), each controlled by a daimyo. The daimyo were required to maintain residences in both their home territory and the capital (Edo), keeping them under the shogunate’s control.

Akbar the Great (1556-1605): Akbar was the most capable Mughal ruler, expanding the empire by defeating Hindu armies and extending his territory. He established an efficient government with a fair legal system, allowing people to appeal directly to him. Akbar also created a strong centralized government with the help of skilled officials from Central Asia.
Zamindars: Akbar employed paid government officials called zamindars to oversee taxation, construction, and water supply. Over time, zamindars began to keep more of the taxes they collected, using the funds to build personal armies, which later contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire.

Divine Right of Kings: European monarchs legitimized their authority through the concept of divine right, claiming their power was granted by God. They also built grand structures like the Palace of Versailles in France to demonstrate their power and glory.
Peter the Great (Russia): After seizing lands on the Baltic Sea, Peter the Great moved the Russian capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg to keep a close watch on the boyars. The city was meticulously planned, and grand structures like the Winter Palace were built to reflect Peter’s admiration for European culture.
Askia the Great (Songhai Empire): Askia Mohammad I, known as Askia the Great, legitimized his rule by promoting Islam and establishing an efficient bureaucracy. He made Islam the official religion of the Songhai Empire, unifying his kingdom.
Shah Jahan (Mughal India): Mughal architecture flourished under Shah Jahan, who built the Taj Mahal as a tomb for his wife. The Mughals also beautified Delhi and constructed forts, combining Islamic and local arts to create magnificent structures.
Ottoman Achievements: The Ottoman Empire built monumental architecture with spiritual significance, such as the Suleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul. The Ottomans also restored and repurposed many of Constantinople’s grand buildings, like the Hagia Sophia, turning it into a mosque.

Russia: Peter the Great established state-owned industries and encouraged private industries to boost revenue. When these efforts failed, he raised taxes and imposed a head tax, further oppressing the peasantry.
Ottoman and Mughal Taxation: Both empires relied on tax farming, where local officials collected taxes and often became wealthy and corrupt. This burden on agricultural villages contributed to the economic decline of these empires.
Ming Dynasty Tax Collection: In Ming China, land taxes were primarily collected by wealthy families. These taxes were mostly collected in grains and later in silver. However, wars, imperial spending, and rebellions eventually bankrupted the dynasty.
Tribute Systems: Empires like China and the Songhai Empire collected tributes from other states to demonstrate their power. Tributes were often in the form of wealth or goods, symbolizing respect and submission.

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