7.4 - Darwinism, Social Darwinism

Charles Darwin and the Evolution of Science

Introduction:

• In the 19th century, science and the scientific method were becoming more widespread and accepted among the general population. This shift paved the way for Charles Darwin, whose work marked a significant evolution in scientific studies and had a profound impact on social structures.

Darwin’s Journey:

• Charles Darwin was an Englishman who initially pursued a theological education at Cambridge University. However, his deep interest in geology led him to join a scientific expedition sponsored by the British Royal Navy. This expedition's mission was to study plant and animal life in the Pacific and South America.

• During this journey, Darwin was able to observe plants, animals, and landmasses that had remained relatively untouched by human influence. As he studied these natural processes, Darwin began to question the traditional religious explanation of creation.

Theories of Evolution:

• According to the Old Testament book of Genesis, God created the world and all its inhabitants in six days. However, Darwin’s observations led him to doubt this narrative. Instead, he proposed that species evolved over time in response to their changing environments.

• In his seminal work, On the Origin of Species (1859), Darwin introduced the theory of natural selection. This theory posits that weaker species that do not adapt to their environment will die out, while stronger, more adaptable species will survive. This concept became popularly known as "survival of the fittest."

• Initially, Darwin applied this theory only to plants and animals, which did not provoke significant controversy. However, in The Descent of Man (1871), Darwin extended his theory to humans, suggesting that humans had also evolved from lower forms of animals. This idea was met with significant resistance, particularly from religious institutions.

Social Darwinism:

• Despite initial pushback, Darwin’s theory of evolution and natural selection gradually gained acceptance. However, it was the application of these ideas to social structures that sparked significant debate and controversy.

• In the second half of the 19th century, some individuals began applying the principles of organic evolution to society, a concept that became known as Social Darwinism. Herbert Spencer, a British philosopher, was a key figure in this movement. He argued that just as organisms evolve over time, so too do civilizations. Strong societies, according to Spencer, were those that adapted and thrived, while weaker societies were destined to fade away.

Implications of Social Darwinism:

• Spencer’s ideas were influenced by the context of his time, particularly the British Empire's dominance during the industrial era. He saw Britain as the epitome of a "fit" society, while those conquered by Britain were seen as weaker and less fit to survive.

• The application of Social Darwinism to nationalistic ideologies had dire consequences. In Germany, Houston Stewart Chamberlain—a British-born philosopher who became a German citizen—argued that the Germans were the pure descendants of the Aryans, the supposed originators of Western culture. He believed that the Aryan race needed to prepare to fight against and eliminate the influence of "lesser races," including Jews, Asians, and Africans.

• This idea would later be embraced by Adolf Hitler, leading to catastrophic consequences in the 20th century.

Conclusion:

• Darwin’s work, while initially focused on biology, had a profound impact on social and political ideologies. The rise of Social Darwinism and its influence on nationalist movements like those in Germany underscores the complex and sometimes dangerous ways in which scientific ideas can be interpreted and applied beyond their original context.