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The Age of New Ideas and Conflicts
The age of new ideas led to political and philosophical conflicts. Conservative thinkers like Edmund Burke and Joseph de Maistre opposed Enlightenment thinking, viewing revolutions as disruptive and unlikely to yield positive results. Despite their efforts, the desire for constitutional government and democratic practices led to numerous revolutions throughout the 19th century, resulting in new forms of government aligned with ideals of progress, reason, and natural law.
The American Revolution
Inspiration: Enlightenment philosophy and the economic ideas of the physiocrats influenced the American Revolution, opposing English mercantilism.
Declaration of Independence: On July 4, 1776, Thomas Jefferson articulated the philosophy behind the colonists' fight against British rule, emphasizing "unalienable rights" such as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
Outcome: The colonists, with the help of France, triumphed in 1781.
The New Zealand Wars
Background: The Maori, who had inhabited New Zealand since the mid-1200s, developed a rich culture and engaged in tribal warfare.
Conflict: After British annexation in 1840, conflicts over land and control led to the New Zealand Wars.
Outcome: Despite developing a sense of Maori nationalism, the British won by 1872.
The French Revolution
Slogan: "Liberté, égalité, et fraternité" (liberty, equality, and fraternity) became the rallying cry.
Causes: Financial woes, including funding the American Revolution, led to the Estates-General meeting in 1789, resulting in the formation of the National Assembly.
Revolution: The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, marked the revolution's beginning. The National Assembly abolished feudalism and adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man.
Reign of Terror: Radical groups like the Jacobins led to a period of mass executions.
Napoleon: The turmoil ended with Napoleon Bonaparte becoming emperor in 1804.
The Haitian Revolution
Background: The French colony of Haiti experienced a slave rebellion led by Toussaint L'Ouverture in 1791.
Leadership: L'Ouverture, inspired by Enlightenment ideas, led a successful rebellion and established an independent government.
Outcome: Haiti became the first Latin American country to gain independence and the first black-led country in the Western Hemisphere in 1804.
Creole Revolutions in Latin America
Social Hierarchy: Creoles (Europeans born in the Americas) sought independence from Spain, driven by opposition to mercantilism and a desire for political power.
Simón Bolívar: Bolívar led movements for independence in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, forming Gran Colombia and promoting Enlightenment ideals.
Outcomes: New nations faced challenges, including conservative governments and limited rights for women and indigenous peoples.
Later Challenges to Spanish Colonialism
Puerto Rico: Poet and activist Lola Rodríguez de Tió became a key figure in the push for Puerto Rican independence.
Philippines: The Propaganda Movement, led by José Rizal, advocated for greater autonomy, leading to the Philippine Revolution in 1896.
Nationalism and Unification in Europe
Italian Unification: Led by Count di Cavour, Italy unified through realpolitik and alliances with revolutionary forces.
German Unification: Otto von Bismarck used nationalist sentiments to engineer wars that led to the unification of Germany in 1871.
Balkan Nationalism
Ottoman Decline: Nationalism spread in the Balkans as Ottoman control weakened.
Greek Independence: Supported by British, French, and Russian forces, Greece gained independence in 1832.
Other Balkan Regions: Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania followed similar paths toward independence.
Ottoman Nationalism
Ottomanism: Aimed to create a unified state by minimizing ethnic, linguistic, and religious differences, but this movement often intensified nationalist sentiments among subject peoples.
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