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Causes of the French Revolution
Social Inequality and Lack of Power
The majority of French people, about 97% of the population, were neither nobility nor clergy. These common citizens had difficult lives with little to no power to change their circumstances.
The nobility and clergy held all the political power, leaving the common people without a voice in government decisions.
Economic Crises
Wars and Debt: Louis XIV’s numerous wars to establish dominance in Europe left France deeply in debt.
Tax Burden: Although the wars were meant to benefit all of France, the economic burden fell exclusively on the common people, as the nobility and clergy were exempt from taxes. The poorest citizens, who struggled to afford basic necessities, were the ones who had to pay the increased taxes.
Imbalance in the Estates General
The Estates General was France’s representative body, composed of three estates:
The First Estate: The Catholic clergy (about 1% of the population).
The Second Estate: The nobility (about 2% of the population).
The Third Estate: Represented everyone else (97% of the population).
Despite the Third Estate representing the vast majority of the population, each estate had only one vote in the Estates General.
The First and Second Estates, with similar interests, always voted together, allowing 3% of the population to control decisions that affected the entire country.
This system prevented the common people from having any real influence over the government.
Bread Shortages
By 1788, famines had caused severe bread shortages, exacerbating the suffering of the French lower classes.
The combination of unfair taxes, lack of political power, and food scarcity created a volatile situation, fueling widespread discontent.
The Formation of the National Assembly
The Estates General (1789)
The Estates General convened in 1789 to address the severe crises facing France, including economic turmoil and widespread discontent.
However, the First and Second Estates (clergy and nobility) made it clear that they would only act in their own interests. They held the majority of the power and were unwilling to share it with the Third Estate, which represented the common people.
Creation of the National Assembly
Frustrated by the lack of progress and the clear opposition from the other two estates, members of the Third Estate took a bold step.
They left the meeting of the Estates General and declared themselves the National Assembly, claiming to be the true representative body of France.
Their first significant action was to grant themselves control over taxation, challenging the traditional power structures.
The Tennis Court Oath
In June 1789, the Third Estate representatives attempted to attend another meeting of the Estates General but were barred from entry.
In response, they gathered in a nearby tennis court and swore the Tennis Court Oath, vowing not to disband until they had drafted a new constitution for France.
This marked a significant escalation in their struggle for power, and they eventually succeeded in drafting the constitution.
Louis XVI's Response
Although Louis XVI was forced to accept the new constitution and the limitations it imposed on his power, he secretly began assembling troops to crush the National Assembly.
When this plot was discovered, a rebel group known as the sans-culottes stormed the Bastille prison, a symbol of the king’s tyranny.
The storming of the Bastille was a pivotal moment, marking the first major uprising of the French Revolution and solidifying the people's determination to maintain their newfound power.
The Liberal Phase of the French Revolution
Overview
The French Revolution is traditionally divided into two phases: the Liberal Phase and the Radical Phase. The Liberal Phase marked the beginning of the revolution, where significant reforms were implemented to address the inequalities and injustices that had plagued French society.
Key Reforms by the National Assembly
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789):
Drafted by the National Assembly, this document established key principles such as freedom of speech, representative government, and the abolition of hereditary privileges of the First and Second Estates (clergy and nobility).
The Declaration was heavily inspired by the American Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights.
Nationalization of the Catholic Church:
Through the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790), the National Assembly took significant steps to reduce the power of the Catholic Church:
Disbanded the church's monastic orders.
Confiscated Church lands.
Eliminated the tithe (a tax that peasants had to pay to the church).
Placed clergy under state authority, effectively bringing the church under government control.
Role of Women
Women played a critical role during the Liberal Phase, most notably in the October March on Versailles (1789):
Amidst widespread bread shortages, thousands of women, angered by the lavish lifestyle of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, marched to Versailles to demand bread.
When their demands were not met, they stormed the palace, killed several guards, and forced the king to accept the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
This march was a significant moment in the revolution, demonstrating the power and determination of the common people, particularly women.
Olympe de Gouges and Women’s Rights:
Although the Declaration of the Rights of Man did not address women's rights, Olympe de Gouges later drafted the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen, advocating for gender equality.
Her efforts, along with those of other women’s groups, led to some improvements in the legal status of women, though many of these gains were later overturned, restricting citizenship and full rights to men.
Transition to the Radical Phase
The Liberal Phase laid the groundwork for significant societal changes, but as the revolution progressed, tensions and conflicts escalated, leading to the more intense and violent Radical Phase of the French Revolution.
The Radical Phase of the French Revolution
The Shift to Radicalism
By 1790, the National Assembly had fractured into various factions, with the Jacobins emerging as the most radical group.
In 1792, the National Assembly voted to dissolve itself and establish a more permanent governing body known as the National Convention. The Jacobins quickly seized control of this new convention and implemented a series of radical policies.
Key Actions by the Jacobins
Reordering of Time:
The Jacobins declared that Year One was no longer the year of Christ’s birth but rather 1792, marking the beginning of the "Era of Liberty."
Abolition of the Monarchy:
The constitutional monarchy established by the National Assembly was dissolved.
The National Convention declared France a Republic and executed King Louis XVI by guillotine in 1793, symbolizing the end of the monarchy and the rise of the people's power.
Reaction from Other European States
The execution of Louis XVI horrified other European monarchies, who feared that revolutionary fervor might spread to their own countries.
Several European states allied against France to prevent the spread of revolutionary ideas.
The Reign of Terror (1793-1794)
Faced with internal dissent and external threats, the Jacobin-dominated National Convention, led by Maximilien Robespierre, initiated the Reign of Terror to maintain control.
Maximilien Robespierre became synonymous with the Reign of Terror, during which over 40,000 people were executed by guillotine under the authority of the Committee of Public Safety.
The Committee enforced mass conscription, creating the largest army Europe had ever seen, which was charged with both defending the revolution and spreading its ideals throughout Europe.
End of the Reign of Terror
The Reign of Terror became increasingly brutal, and the authoritarian actions of the Committee of Public Safety sparked opposition even among those who had initially supported the revolution.
In 1794, Robespierre’s opponents turned against him, leading to his execution by guillotine, which effectively ended the Reign of Terror.
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