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The Vietnam War
French Imperialism and Resistance
After World War II, the French tried to retake their colony of Indochina, but the Vietnamese, led by nationalist and Communist leader Ho Chi Minh, resisted.
The conflict became part of the Cold War, with the U.S. supporting the French and China and the Soviet Union supporting the Viet Minh guerrillas.
Eisenhower’s Domino Theory
After the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu in 1954, the Geneva Conference divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel, with a plan for future elections.
North Vietnam became a Communist dictatorship under Ho Chi Minh, while South Vietnam was led by Ngo Dinh Diem, backed by anti-Communist and Catholic supporters.
Eisenhower introduced the "domino theory," suggesting that if South Vietnam or another country fell to communism, other Southeast Asian or surrounding nations would follow.
Tonkin Gulf Resolution
In 1964, instability in South Vietnam increased, and the U.S. faced pressure to act.
After an alleged attack on U.S. warships by North Vietnamese forces in the Gulf of Tonkin, President Johnson sought and received congressional approval for the Tonkin Gulf Resolution.
This resolution, also known as the "blank check policy," authorized Johnson to take "all necessary measures" to protect U.S. interests in Vietnam, leading to full-scale U.S. military involvement.
Critics later argued that this amounted to an illegal war since Congress never officially declared war as required by the Constitution.
Operation Rolling Thunder
In 1965, after a Vietcong attack on a U.S. base, President Johnson authorized a prolonged air assault on North Vietnam, escalating U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. By the end of 1965, 184,000 U.S. troops were deployed in Vietnam, with the number rising to 485,000 by 1967.
Credibility Gap
Misinformation from military leaders and Johnson's reluctance to fully disclose the war's scope created a credibility gap with the American public. Despite reassurances from General Westmoreland, the public began doubting the government's honesty about the war.
Hawks vs. Doves
The war split public opinion into "hawks," who supported the war as necessary to stop communism, and "doves," who opposed it, viewing it as a costly and unnecessary conflict. The antiwar movement, especially strong among college students, grew significantly during this period.
Tet Offensive
In January 1968, the Vietcong launched a surprise attack during the Tet holiday, striking multiple cities and U.S. bases. Although militarily repelled, the offensive was a political victory for the North Vietnamese, demoralizing the American public and leading to widespread doubt about the war's progress.
Johnson Ends Escalation
Following the Tet Offensive, Johnson announced on March 31, 1968, that he would limit bombing in North Vietnam and seek peace negotiations. He also declared he would not seek reelection. Peace talks began in May but were quickly deadlocked, though further escalation of U.S. troop deployment was halted.
Election of 1968
Robert F. Kennedy entered the presidential race in 1968 after McCarthy's strong showing.
Kennedy was effective in mobilizing the Democratic blue-collar and minority vote but was assassinated after winning the California primary.
The election turned into a three-way race between George Wallace, Richard Nixon, and Hubert Humphrey. Nixon ends up winning.
Nixon’s Vietnam Policy
Nixon promised to unite Americans and created what was termed an "imperial presidency."
His focus was on reducing U.S. involvement in Vietnam while avoiding the appearance of defeat, leading to the policy of Vietnamization.
Vietnamization: Gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops and transfer of combat responsibilities to the South Vietnamese.
By 1972, U.S. troops in Vietnam were reduced from 540,000 to under 30,000.
Opposition to Nixon’s War Policies:
Nixon expanded the war by invading Cambodia, sparking widespread protests, including deadly incidents at Kent State and Jackson State universities.
The U.S. Senate voted to repeal the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
The public was shocked by the My Lai massacre and the release of the Pentagon Papers, which exposed government deceptions in Vietnam.
Peace Talks and Armistice:
Nixon’s administration engaged in secret peace talks, but when negotiations stalled, he ordered heavy bombing of North Vietnam.
The Paris Accords of 1973 led to the withdrawal of U.S. troops and the return of prisoner of wars, but the war continued between North and South Vietnam.
War Powers Act
Passed in 1973, the act required the president to report to Congress within 48 hours of military action and obtain approval for actions lasting more than 60 days.
This act was a response to the secret bombings in Cambodia and the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, aimed to limit presidential power in military matters.
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