8.6 - Newly Independent States

Israel’s Founding and Its Relationships with Neighbors

• Zionist Movement: The Zionist movement began in the 1890s, driven by reactions to the Dreyfus Affair, which showed the failure of Jewish assimilation into European society. Theodore Herzl, a Hungarian Jewish intellectual, urged the creation of a separate Jewish state at the First Zionist Congress in 1897.

• Birth of Israel: Zionists aimed to establish a Jewish state in Palestine, the ancestral home of the Jewish people. Palestine, then part of the Ottoman Empire, was primarily inhabited by Arabs practicing Islam. The British Balfour Declaration of 1917 supported the idea of a "national home" for Jews in Palestine, while also promising to protect the rights of non-Jewish communities.

• Post-WWI: After World War I, Britain was given a mandate over former Ottoman lands in the Middle East. Jewish immigration to Palestine increased, leading to Arab protests over the loss of land and their way of life.

• Holocaust Impact: The Holocaust, in which six million Jews were killed, intensified Jewish immigration to Palestine, garnering global sympathy. In 1948, following the UN partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab sections, the Jewish section declared itself the new state of Israel.

Multiple Wars

• Initial Conflict (1948): War broke out immediately after Israel's declaration of independence, with Arab forces from Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, and Iraq invading. Israel, with U.S. support, won the war, leading to an armed truce. About 700,000 Palestinians became refugees.

• Suez Crisis (1956): Israel, supported by France and Great Britain, invaded Egypt's Sinai Peninsula to free the Suez Canal, which Egypt had nationalized. After international protests, Israel and its allies withdrew.

• Six-Day War (1967): Israel fought on three fronts simultaneously, gaining control of the Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria.

• Yom Kippur War (1973): Israel successfully repelled a surprise invasion by Egypt and Syria.

Israeli-Egyptian Peace

• Camp David Accords (1978): U.S. President Jimmy Carter mediated a peace agreement between Israel and Egypt after 30 years of conflict. However, the Palestinians and several Arab states rejected the 1979 peace treaty. The Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), led by Yasser Arafat, demanded the return of occupied lands and the creation of an independent Palestinian nation.

Ongoing Violence

• Palestinian Split: In the 21st century, Palestinians split into two factions: Fatah, controlling the West Bank, and Hamas, controlling Gaza. Israel tightened border controls on these areas, leading to economic sanctions that fueled anger among Palestinians.

• Continued Conflict: Violence persisted, with over 6,000 Palestinians and more than 1,000 Israelis killed between 2000 and 2017. The ongoing conflict kept many Middle Eastern countries hostile to the United States due to its support of Israel.

Cambodia Gains Independence and Survives Wars

• Independence from France (1953): Cambodia gained independence from France in 1953. The royal family tried to maintain Cambodia's non-aligned status during the Cold War but was eventually drawn into the Vietnam War.

• Khmer Rouge and Pol Pot: After the Vietnam War, the Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, overthrew Cambodia's government and imposed a brutal form of communism, modeled after China's Cultural Revolution. The regime caused the deaths of over two million people, about one-quarter of the country's population.

• Vietnamese Intervention: In 1979, Vietnamese troops invaded Cambodia to overthrow Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge, leading to Vietnamese control of the Cambodian government. Vietnam withdrew in 1989, and a 1991 peace agreement allowed for free elections monitored by the United Nations, leading to a democratic government in Cambodia.

India and Pakistan Become Separate Countries

• Partition of India (1947): In 1947, British India was divided into two independent countries: India (mostly Hindu) and Pakistan (mostly Muslim). India had a population about 10 times larger than Pakistan. Both countries granted women the right to vote.

• Partition Violence: The partition led to chaotic and violent events along religious lines. At least 10 million people moved across the new borders: Hindus and Sikhs fled Pakistan for India, while Muslims fled India for Pakistan. Between 500,000 and one million people died during this turmoil.

• India-Pakistan Distrust: After partition, distrust between India and Pakistan grew. While India became the world’s largest democracy, Pakistan alternated between elected leaders and authoritarian military rulers. Both countries faced internal struggles between moderates and conservative religious movements that resisted compromise.

• Kashmir Conflict: A persistent source of tension between India and Pakistan was the Kashmir region, a border area in the mountainous north. At the time of partition, Kashmir had a Muslim-majority population but was ruled by a Hindu leader. Both countries claimed Kashmir, leading to armed conflicts. The situation became more serious after both countries developed nuclear weapons. Currently, India controls about 55% of Kashmir, Pakistan controls 30%, and China controls 15%.

Women Gain Power in South Asia

• Sri Lanka:

  • First Female Prime Minister: Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the world’s first female prime minister in 1960 in Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) after her husband’s assassination. She initially continued her husband’s socialist policies but was voted out in 1965 due to economic difficulties. She returned to power in 1970, implementing more radical policies, including land reforms and restrictions on free enterprise. However, economic challenges led to her being voted out again in 1977. Her daughter Chandrika became Sri Lanka’s first female president in 1994, appointing Sirimavo as prime minister once more.

• India:

  • Indira Gandhi: In 1966, Indira Gandhi, the daughter of India’s first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru, became India’s leader. She distanced herself from her father’s advisors and made significant political and economic changes to strengthen India’s economy. Although she won a war with Pakistan with Soviet support, economic difficulties and political strife led her to declare a national emergency in 1975. Her policies during this time were controversial, and she lost the 1977 elections but returned to power in 1980. She was assassinated in 1984.

• Pakistan:

  • Benazir Bhutto: Pakistan elected Benazir Bhutto as prime minister in 1988, making her the first elected female leader of a majority Muslim country. She struggled with economic challenges and corruption accusations. Bhutto served two non-consecutive terms before going into exile in 1999. She returned to Pakistan in 2007 but was assassinated shortly thereafter.

Tanzania Modernizes

• Independence and Leadership: Tanganyika gained independence from Britain in 1961, later becoming the United Republic of Tanzania. Julius Nyerere, the first president, promoted African socialism through the Arusha Declaration of 1967, focusing on cooperative agriculture, literacy campaigns, and free education. Despite his popularity, Nyerere struggled with economic hardships and conflicts with Uganda’s Idi Amin. He resigned in 1985 but remained an influential leader until his death in 1999.

Emigration from Newer Countries to Older Ones

• Migration Patterns: After gaining independence, people from newly independent countries often migrated to former colonial powers. For example, many people from Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh moved to London, while Vietnamese, Algerians, and West Africans migrated to Paris. Filipinos moved to the United States. These migrants often found jobs in healthcare, railroads, foundries, and airports, maintaining strong economic and cultural ties between the former colonies and colonial powers.