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Jefferson’s Foreign Policy
Policy and Principle: Jefferson aimed to avoid war, rejecting permanent alliances and striving to maintain U.S. neutrality during the Napoleonic wars.
Barbary Pirates: The Barbary states on the North African coast demanded tribute to prevent piracy. Jefferson refused to pay increased tribute and sent a small fleet, leading to sporadic fighting (1801–1805). The U.S. Navy gained respect despite no decisive victory.
Challenges to U.S. Neutrality: France and Britain imposed blockades and seized ships from neutral nations, affecting U.S. commerce. The British navy was the chief offender, capturing U.S. sailors and impressing them into service.
Chesapeake-Leopard Affair
Incident: In 1807, the British warship Leopard attacked the U.S. warship Chesapeake, killing three Americans and impressing four others. This incident heightened anti-British sentiment, but Jefferson opted for diplomacy over war.
Embargo Act (1807)
Purpose: To avoid war and pressure Britain, Jefferson enacted the Embargo Act, prohibiting American ships from sailing to foreign ports. He hoped Britain would respect U.S. neutrality.
Outcome: The embargo hurt the U.S. economy more than Britain's. It led to economic depression, particularly in New England, and spurred talks of secession. The act was repealed in 1809, but trade restrictions remained with Britain and France.
President Madison’s Foreign Policy
Commercial Warfare
Nonintercourse Act of 1809: Allowed trade with all nations except Britain and France, aiming to end economic hardship while asserting neutral rights.
Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810): Restored trade with Britain and France, with the condition that if either respected U.S. neutrality, the U.S. would halt trade with the other. Napoleon pretended to comply, leading Madison to embargo Britain in 1811, but France continued seizing U.S. ships.
Foreign Trade Graph (1805–1817)
Graph Overview: Shows fluctuations in U.S. imports and exports, illustrating the economic impact of embargoes and wars. The big drop in 1807 is a direct result of Jefferson's Embargo Act.
Source: Historical Statistics of the United States
The War of 1812
Causes of the War
Free Seas and Trade: The U.S. depended on the free flow of shipping across the Atlantic, which was disrupted by Britain and France during the Napoleonic wars. The British navy’s practice of impressing American sailors particularly angered the U.S.
War Hawks: Young Democratic-Republicans from frontier states, led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, pushed for war to defend American honor, gain Canada, and destroy Indian resistance. They influenced Congress to support the war declaration.
Declaration of War: Political pressure and British delays in respecting neutral rights led Madison to seek a declaration of war in June 1812. Ironically, Britain had agreed to suspend its naval blockade, but the news arrived too late.
A Divided Nation
Congressional and Public Division: The war declaration was supported by southern and western states but opposed by most northern states.
Election of 1812: Madison was re-elected, defeating De Witt Clinton. The vote reflected regional divisions.
Opposition to the War: New England merchants, Federalist politicians, and Quids opposed the war, viewing it as unnecessary and a threat to their interests.
Military Defeats and Naval Victories
Invasion of Canada: Attempts to invade Canada failed. An American raid on York (Toronto) in 1813 led to British retaliation.
Naval Battles: The U.S. Navy had notable successes, including the victory of the USS Constitution and privateers capturing British merchant ships. The blockade by the British navy crippled U.S. trade.
Chesapeake Campaign: British forces burned Washington, D.C., but failed to capture Baltimore, inspiring "The Star-Spangled Banner."
Southern Campaign: General Andrew Jackson’s victories, including the Battle of New Orleans, boosted American morale, though the battle occurred after the peace treaty was signed.
The Treaty of Ghent
Peace Agreement: By 1814, both sides were ready for peace. The Treaty of Ghent, signed on Christmas Eve 1814, ended the war by halting fighting, returning all conquered territory, and recognizing prewar boundaries. It did not address maritime issues, resulting in a stalemate.
The Hartford Convention
New England’s Threat: Radical Federalists in New England, opposed to the War of 1812 and the Democratic-Republican government, suggested constitutional amendments and even secession.
Convention Outcomes: In December 1814, delegates at the Hartford Convention rejected secession but proposed several constitutional amendments, including requiring a two-thirds vote in Congress for future declarations of war.
Aftermath: The convention's relevance was undermined by the news of Jackson’s victory at New Orleans and the Treaty of Ghent. This diminished criticism of the war and further weakened the Federalist Party, labeling them as unpatriotic.
The War’s Legacy
International Respect: The U.S. gained respect from other nations after surviving two wars with Britain.
Canadian Boundary: The U.S. accepted Canada as part of the British Empire.
Federalist Decline: The Federalist Party collapsed as a national force and diminished even in New England.
Precedent for Secession: New England’s talk of secession set a precedent used later by the South.
Impact on Native Americans: Without British support, Native Americans were forced to surrender land to white settlers.
Industrial Growth: The British blockade spurred U.S. industrial self-sufficiency as factories were built.
Emerging Leaders: War heroes like Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison became prominent political leaders.
Nationalism and Expansion: Nationalism grew stronger, and Americans increasingly looked to the West rather than Europe.
Monroe and Foreign Affairs
Following the War of 1812, the U.S. adopted a more aggressive and nationalistic foreign policy under President Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams.
Canada
Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817): Limited naval armaments on the Great Lakes, leading to an unfortified U.S.-Canada border.
Treaty of 1818: Improved U.S.-British relations with shared fishing rights, joint occupation of the Oregon Territory, and setting the northern boundary of the Louisiana Territory at the 49th parallel.
Florida
Western Florida: U.S. troops had occupied this area during the War of 1812. Post-war, Spain struggled to govern Florida due to revolts in its South American colonies.
Jackson’s Military Campaign (1817-1818): General Andrew Jackson was ordered to stop Seminole raids into U.S. territory. He invaded Florida, destroyed Seminole villages, captured Pensacola, and hanged two British traders.
Florida Purchase Treaty (Adams-Onís Treaty) (1819): Spain ceded Florida and claims in Oregon to the U.S. in exchange for $5 million and U.S. claims to Texas. This secured U.S. control over Florida and expanded its territory.
The Monroe Doctrine
European Ambitions: After the fall of Napoleon in 1815, several European monarchies (France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) sought to suppress republican movements and considered helping Spain reclaim power in South America, where republics had recently declared independence. Additionally, Russia's expansion in Alaska and into California concerned both Britain and the United States.
American Response: President Monroe, influenced by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, decided against a joint declaration with Britain. Adams argued that:
If the U.S. acted alone, Britain would support U.S. policy to protect its own interests.
No European power would risk war in South America, as the British navy would likely defeat any aggressor.
The Monroe Doctrine: On December 2, 1823, President Monroe declared in his annual message to Congress:
The American continents are no longer open for colonization by European powers.
The U.S. would oppose any European attempts to interfere in the affairs of Western Hemisphere republics.
Impact:
European Reaction: European monarchs were angered but recognized that the British navy, not Monroe's words, prevented their intervention.
Long-term Influence: Although initially not impactful, the Monroe Doctrine gained significance as a foundational aspect of U.S. foreign policy which will come back up during imperialism and later on.
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