4.6 - Internal and External Challenges to State Power

Resistance to Portugal in Africa

• Portuguese Expansion: By the 17th century, the Dutch and English had pushed the Portuguese out of South Asia. The Portuguese then focused on Africa, where they had conducted slave raids since the 15th century.

• Ana Nzinga:

  • Ruler of Ndongo: Became ruler of Ndongo (present-day Angola) in 1624.

  • Portuguese Alliance: Initially allied with Portugal for protection against neighboring powers and to end Portuguese raids. Nzinga was baptized as a Christian, with the Portuguese governor as her godfather.

  • Alliance Breakdown: The alliance failed, leading Nzinga and her people to flee west and take over the state of Matamba.

  • Resistance and Rebellion: Nzinga incited a rebellion in Ndongo, allied with the Dutch, and offered freedom to enslaved Africans. She ruled Matamba for decades, building it into an economically strong state.

Local Resistance in Russia

• Serfdom and Nobility:

  • Harsh Conditions: Wars in the 17th and 15th centuries weakened the central government and increased the power of the nobility, leading to harsher conditions for serfs.

  • Debt and Serfdom: Peasants' debts increased, leading many to lose their lands and become serfs.

  • Control: Serfdom kept peasants under control, regulated by the nobility, and provided free labor to landowners.

• Expansion and Serfdom: As Russia expanded west to the Baltic and east to Siberia, serfdom also expanded. By 1649, laws chained serfs to the land, making them practically enslaved.

• Cossack Rebellions:

  • Yemelyan Pugachev: Led a peasant rebellion against Catherine the Great in 1774. Claimed to be the murdered Peter III, gathering a following of discontented peasants, ethnic groups, and Cossacks.

  • Rebellion and Execution: The rebellion controlled territory between the Volga River and the Urals but was crushed within a year. Pugachev was captured and executed, leading Catherine to increase her oppression of peasants.

Rebellion in South Asia

• Mughal Empire:

  • Control and Culture: The Mughals controlled much of India and Pakistan, centralizing government and spreading Persian art, culture, and Islam. However, the majority of the population remained Hindu.

  • Maratha Rebellion: The Maratha, a Hindu warrior group, fought the Mughals from 1680 to 1707, creating the Hindu Maratha Empire and ending Mughal rule in India by 1818.

Revolts in the Spanish Empire

• Pueblo Revolt (1680):

  • Against Spanish Colonizers: Pueblo and Apache groups in New Mexico resisted Spanish efforts to force religious conversions.

  • Outcome: Indigenous groups killed about 400 Spaniards, drove the rest out, and destroyed churches. The Spanish reconquered the area in 1692.

Struggles for Power in England and Its Colonies

• Maroon Wars:

  • Jamaica: Descendants of escaped Africans in Jamaica, known as Maroons, fought for freedom from 1728 to 1740 and 1795 to 1796. Queen Nanny united the Maroons and became a national hero.

• Gloucester County Rebellion (1663):

  • First Recorded Slave Revolt: Enslaved Africans and white indentured servants in Virginia conspired to demand freedom but were ambushed and arrested.

• Metacom's War (King Philip's War):

  • Indigenous Resistance: The Wampanoag people, led by Metacom, fought to drive the British from New England. The war ended with the subjugation of the Wampanoag.

• Glorious Revolution (1688):

  • James II and William of Orange: James II's anti-Protestant measures enraged many, leading to an invitation for William of Orange to invade England and become king. James fled to France, and William and Mary II began their joint rule, ensuring a Protestant throne.

  • Parliament's Power: The revolution strengthened Parliament's power, including passing a law forbidding Catholics from ruling England.