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Ottoman Empire: Once extended deep into Europe but began losing control over European territories in the 19th century. Inspired by the French Revolution: Ethnic nationalism emerged as Balkan peoples sought independence.
Key Independence Movements:
Serbia (1815): Gained independence after a prolonged war.
Greece (1832): Secured independence following a long struggle.
Other Balkan Rebellions: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Bulgaria rebelled against Ottoman rule.
Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878): Serbia and Russia aided the Balkans, leading to the Treaty of Berlin, which freed Bulgaria, Romania, and Montenegro but placed Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austria-Hungary's control.
Resistance and Rebellion in the Americas
Indigenous Responses in North America
Proclamation of 1763: British reserved land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River for Native Americans, angering colonists. Post-Independence: U.S. citizens displaced Native Americans in the Ohio and Illinois river valleys.
Cherokee Nation:
Assimilation: Adopted colonial farming, weaving, and building methods; developed a syllabic alphabet; published the Cherokee Phoenix newspaper.
Forced Relocation: Despite assimilation, the Cherokee were forcibly relocated to Oklahoma following the Indian Removal Act of 1830, leading to the Trail of Tears.
Ghost Dance Movement:
Prophet-Dreamers: Northern Paiute announced the return of the dead to drive out whites.
Sioux Participation: The movement spread to the Sioux, leading to the Ghost Dance resistance, which ended at the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890.
Latin American Rebellions
Túpac Amaru II:
José Gabriel Condorcanqui: Cacique in southern Peru, descended from the last Inca ruler.
Revolt: Led an uprising against Spanish rule in 1780, which spread across southern Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina before his capture and execution in 1781.
French Intervention in Mexico:
Napoleon III's Ambition: Conspired with Mexican conservatives to install Archduke Maximilian as emperor.
Outcome: After three years of war, Mexicans expelled the French and executed Maximilian in 1867, restoring Benito Juárez's presidency.
South Asian Movements
Sepoy Mutiny (Indian Rebellion of 1857)
Causes:
Religious Sensitivities: Use of rifle cartridges greased with cow and pig fat offended Hindu and Muslim sepoys.
Rebellion: Spread across northern India but was brutally suppressed by the British, marking the rise of Indian nationalism.
British Response:
Exile of Mughal Emperor: Ended the Mughal Empire.
British Raj: Established direct colonial rule over India from 1858 until independence in 1947.
Indian National Congress (1885):
Formation: Founded by British-educated Indians to address grievances and eventually advocate for self-rule.
Vietnam and Philippine Movements
Vietnam:
Resistance to French Rule: Emperor Ham Nghi's supporters resisted French control until his capture in 1888. Resistance continued under Phan Dinh Phung until 1895.
Philippines:
Liga Filipina: Reform movement led by José Rizal, who was executed by the Spanish in 1896.
Philippine Revolution: Began in 1896 against Spanish rule; continued against the U.S. after the Spanish-American War (1898). The Philippine-American War (1899–1902) ended in U.S. victory, with significant Filipino casualties.
Resistance in Australia and New Zealand
Aboriginal and Maori Resistance
Australia:
British Colonization: Began in 1788, with convicts and soldiers settling in New South Wales. Aboriginal resistance was met with violence, and thousands were killed.
New Zealand:
Treaty of Waitangi (1840): Promised protection of Maori property rights but led to conflict over land sales. The Maori Wars ended in British victory and significant Maori land loss by 1900.
Later Resistance Movements
Sokoto Caliphate:
West African Empire: Founded by Usman dan Fodio, it was the largest African empire since the 16th century but was subdued by the British in 1903.
South Africa:
Xhosa and Zulu Wars: Xhosa resisted British rule through the Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement (1856–1857) and the British fought the Zulu Kingdom in the Anglo-Zulu War (1879), eventually defeating them.
Samory Touré’s War:
West African Kingdom: Samory Touré led resistance against French annexation but was eventually captured and exiled in 1898.
Mahdist Revolt:
Sudan: Muhammad Ahmad declared himself the Mahdi and led a revolt against Egyptian and British rule, which succeeded temporarily but was ultimately crushed by the British in 1898.
Yaa Asantewaa War (1900):
Asante Empire: Queen Yaa Asantewaa led the final war against British rule, known as the War of the Golden Stool, which ended in British victory and Asante becoming part of the Gold Coast colony.
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