7.4 - The Progressives

Origins of Progressivism

• As the 20th century began, rapid industrialization led to significant societal shifts, unsettling many in the U.S. This era saw growing concerns about big business power, economic disparities, and political corruption.

• Middle-class Americans, disturbed by these changes and inspired by the possibilities of reform, spearheaded the Progressive movement, advocating for a larger governmental role in addressing such issues.

Who Were the Progressives?

• Progressives were a diverse group including Protestant church leaders, African Americans, union leaders, and feminists, united by the belief in the need for government-driven reform.

Progressive Philosophy and Pragmatism

• Progressives embraced the philosophy of pragmatism, arguing that truth should be tested by its practical outcomes. This approach supported their advocacy for reforms to enhance democracy and address economic and social injustices.

• Influenced by the pragmatism of William James and John Dewey, Progressives challenged existing beliefs like laissez-faire capitalism, promoting reforms based on practicality and efficiency.

Muckrakers

• Muckrakers were journalists who exposed societal issues, from corrupt politics to poor working conditions, through in-depth reporting. This term, popularized by President Theodore Roosevelt, described writers who "raked up" and exposed societal muck.

• Although the prominence of muckraking declined after 1910 due to pressures from publishers and advertisers, its impact on raising public awareness and prompting reform was profound.

Decline of Muckraking

• The decline of muckraking journalism was due to its increasing challenge in maintaining sensationalism, pressures from advertisers, and the rising influence of corporate public relations.

Political Reforms

• Secret Ballot: Adopted from Australia, this reform aimed to ensure voter privacy and reduce electoral manipulation by allowing voters to make choices secretly.

• Direct Primaries: Introduced to reduce corruption by allowing party members to choose their candidates directly, thereby weakening party bosses' control.

• Direct Election of U.S. Senators (17th Amendment): The adoption of the 17th Amendment in 1913 marked a significant shift in the electoral process for U.S. Senators. Previously, senators were elected by state legislatures, a practice that had become mired in corruption and partisanship, often stalling the legislative process. Public outcry over these issues fueled the demand for reform. The 17th Amendment, therefore, established the direct election of senators by the voters of each state, aiming to increase government accountability and reduce corruption by giving the power directly to the people. This change was a crucial step toward enhancing democratic governance and ensuring that senators would be more responsive to the needs and opinions of their constituents, rather than the political intrigues of state legislatures.

Temperance and Prohibition

The movement to prohibit alcohol gained momentum in the early 20th century, driven by concerns over alcohol's negative effects on society, including domestic violence and workplace accidents. Reformers, often aligned with religious groups, pushed for laws to ban the production and sale of alcohol, leading to the adoption of the 18th Amendment in 1920, which established Prohibition.

Social Welfare

Progressives aimed to address urban poverty and improve living conditions through various social welfare programs. Efforts included establishing public health services, promoting education, and improving housing standards to create safer, more livable urban environments.

Child and Women Labor

The exploitation of children and women in factories became a focal point for reformers, who pushed for laws to limit working hours and improve working conditions. The landmark case of Muller v. Oregon (1908) successfully argued for limits on women's working hours based on their supposed physical weakness, reflecting the era's prevailing attitudes toward gender.

• Court Case (Muller v. Oregon): This Supreme Court decision upheld the constitutionality of laws protecting female workers by restricting their working hours, marking a significant victory for labor reform but also entrenching gender discrimination in labor laws.

Theodore Roosevelt

Roosevelt ascended to the presidency in 1901 and introduced his "Square Deal" as his comprehensive domestic policy. This approach, characterized by the "three C's" (control of corporations, consumer protection, and conservation of natural resources), aimed to address the broad needs of the middle class while curbing the power of large corporations and protecting the environment.

• Roosevelt's Square Deal for Labor: This policy sought fair treatment for all American citizens. A crucial application was the resolution of the 1902 coal strike, where Roosevelt mediated between miners and owners, leading to a compromise that averted a national energy crisis. This intervention was significant as it was one of the first times a U.S. President took an active role in resolving a labor dispute, marking a shift in governmental approach to labor issues.

  • Coal Mining Situation: During the 1902 coal strike in Pennsylvania, Roosevelt called both sides to the White House to negotiate a deal, effectively using his presidential influence to ensure a fair settlement. This intervention not only facilitated a 10% wage increase and a nine-hour workday for the miners but also set a precedent for federal involvement in labor disputes.

• Trust Busting: Roosevelt's administration was known for its aggressive stance against monopolistic corporations. He notably went after the Standard Oil Company, using the Sherman Antitrust Act to file a lawsuit that eventually led to its breakup in 1911. This action was a cornerstone of his efforts to regulate "bad trusts" that harmed the public and stifled competition.

• Railroad Regulation:

  1. Elkins Act (1903): This act specifically targeted the practice of railroads offering rebates to favored customers. It strengthened the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) by prohibiting discriminatory rebates and ensured all customers paid the same rates for shipping.

  2. Hepburn Act (1906): This legislation supported the ICC further by allowing it to set maximum railroad rates and extend its oversight to include bridges, terminals, and ferries. It marked a significant expansion of federal regulatory authority over the railroad industry.

• The Jungle and Food Safety:

  • Pure Food and Drug Act (1906): Prompted by the public outcry following Upton Sinclair’s exposé of the meatpacking industry (The Jungle), this act prohibited the sale of adulterated or mislabeled food and drugs, leading to the creation of the Food and Drug Administration.

  • Meat Inspection Act (1906): This act required that meat processing plants engage in sanitary practices and allowed for federal inspection of all meat sold through interstate commerce, ensuring that the products were processed under sanitary conditions.

• Conservation Efforts: Roosevelt was an avid conservationist, advocating for the preservation of natural resources. His efforts included the Newlands Reclamation Act, which funded irrigation projects for arid lands, and the establishment of numerous national parks and forests.

Woodrow Wilson's Progressive Program

President Woodrow Wilson advocated a comprehensive program called the "New Freedom," aimed at dismantling what he called the "triple wall of privilege": tariffs, banks, and trusts. His agenda focused on reducing economic restrictions to promote free and fair competition, thereby enhancing American democracy and economic opportunity.

• Tariff Reduction (Underwood Tariff): Wilson called a special session of Congress at the beginning of his presidency to address tariff reform, resulting in the passage of the Underwood Tariff in 1913. This act significantly reduced tariffs for the first time in over fifty years, easing the tariff burden on average Americans and compensating for lost revenue with a graduated income tax.

• Federal Reserve System (Federal Reserve Act): The Federal Reserve Act of 1914 established the Federal Reserve System, introducing a central banking structure with 12 district banks controlled by a Federal Reserve Board. This system was designed to stabilize the U.S. financial system by adjusting interest rates, overseeing monetary policy, and regulating the banking industry.

• Additional Economic Reforms:

  • Federal Trade Commission: Created to protect consumers and prevent anti-competitive business practices. It was created to investigate and take action against unfair trade practices in nearly all industries.

  • Clayton Antitrust Act: This act strengthened the provisions of the Sherman Antitrust Act, specifically clarifying and expanding the government's powers to prevent monopolies and certain anti-competitive practices. Notably, it exempted labor unions from being treated as illegal combinations in restraint of trade.

  • Federal Farm Loan Act: Passed to provide farmers with access to low-interest loans, aiming to boost the agricultural sector by establishing federal farm loan banks.

  • Child Labor Act: Enacted in 1916, this law prohibited the sale of products manufactured by children under the age of 14, addressing child labor issues by regulating interstate commerce. However, it was later struck down by the Supreme Court.

African Americans in the Progressive Era

The Progressive Era largely overlooked the racial inequalities and segregation prevalent at the time. Influential African American leaders like Booker T. Washington advocated for economic self-reliance and vocational training as a strategy to improve the social and economic status of African Americans, whereas W.E.B. Du Bois pushed for immediate civil rights and political representation.

• Booker T. Washington: Emphasized economic self-help and vocational education for African Americans to improve their status in society.

• W.E.B. Du Bois: Advocated for immediate civil rights and political participation, showing the necessity for African Americans to have equal rights in order to advance economically.

NAACP and National Urban League

The NAACP, founded in 1909, aimed to fight for the rights of African Americans through legal challenges against segregation and discrimination. The National Urban League, established in 1911, focused on helping African Americans transition to urban life and secure economic self-reliance.

Women's Suffrage

The struggle for women's suffrage saw major organizations like NAWSA and the more radical National Woman's Party, led by Alice Paul, push for voting rights through various strategies, including advocating for a constitutional amendment.

• Nineteenth Amendment: Ratified in 1920, this amendment marked a pivotal victory in the women's suffrage movement by prohibiting any U.S. citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex. The dedicated efforts of women on the home front during World War I were instrumental in achieving this milestone, demonstrating their indispensable role in society and strengthening the case for their voting rights.