6.3 - Westward Expansion: Social and Cultural Development

The Closing of the Frontier

Turner’s Frontier Thesis: Historian Frederick Jackson Turner, in his essay "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" (1893), argued that the American frontier was a key factor in shaping American democracy, individualism, and innovation. He posited that the frontier experience promoted independence and practical-mindedness but also led to wasteful attitudes towards natural resources.

America Without a Frontier: The closing of the frontier raised concerns for Turner, who feared the loss of a "safety valve" for social discontent and the potential for the U.S. to face social conflicts similar to those in Europe.

American Indians in the West

Reservation Policy: In the 1850s, the U.S. government began to assign Plains tribes to specific reservations with defined boundaries, though many tribes resisted this confinement.

Indian Wars: The late 1800s saw violent conflicts between U.S. troops and Plains Indians, including the Sioux War and the Battle of Little Big Horn in 1876. These wars often resulted from settlers encroaching on tribal lands, leading to the eventual defeat and forced relocation of many tribes.

Ghost Dance Movement and Wounded Knee: The Ghost Dance movement, which promised a return of prosperity to American Indians, was violently suppressed by the U.S. Army. This culminated in the massacre at Wounded Knee in 1890, where over 200 Sioux men, women, and children were killed, marking the end of the Indian Wars.

Assimilation: Reformers aimed to assimilate American Indians into white culture through education, job training, and Christianity, often at boarding schools like the Carlisle School in Pennsylvania.

Dawes Severalty Act (1887): This act aimed to assimilate American Indians by dividing tribal lands into individual plots. American Indians who accepted the plots and adopted Western lifestyles were granted U.S. citizenship. However, the act also resulted in significant loss of tribal land to white settlers and speculators, undermining tribal culture and leading to further poverty.

Conservation Movement

Conservation Efforts: Concerns over deforestation and the loss of natural resources led to the conservation movement. Influential figures and stunning depictions of the West spurred Congress to preserve areas like Yosemite and Yellowstone.

Legislation: The Forest Reserve Act of 1891 and the Forest Management Act of 1897 established federal protection and regulation of timberlands, reflecting a growing awareness of the need for environmental conservation.

Preservationists: John Muir and the Sierra Club, founded in 1892, aimed to preserve natural areas from human interference, promoting environmental awareness and the establishment of Arbor Day in 1872.