7.3 - Conducting World War I 

• Optimism and Enlistment: At the onset of World War I in June 1914, many Europeans saw warfare as a heroic endeavor. Hundreds of thousands of teenage boys eagerly enlisted, dreaming of glory and swift victory. Wartime assemblies resembled high school pep rallies, with speakers predicting easy triumphs over supposedly inferior enemies. Bill Haine, a British soldier, recalled that many believed the war would be "over by Christmas."

• Division among Socialists: Leaders of some socialist parties opposed the war, although opinions within the socialist community were divided, with many supporting their nation’s war efforts.

Brutality of 20th-Century Warfare:

• Trench Warfare: The defining experience for most soldiers was time spent in trenches—long ditches dug into the ground with the excavated earth banked in front to defend against enemy fire. Soldiers lived in cold, muddy, rat-infested trenches for months, facing diseases caused by unhygienic conditions. Erich Maria Remarque's novel "All Quiet on the Western Front" and its 1930 film adaptation vividly portray trench life.

• Poison Gas: Poison gas, including chlorine, phosgene, and mustard gas, was a new and insidious weapon. Though gas masks were developed, the effects of gas attacks were painful and long-lasting, leading to permanent lung damage for many. International treaties later banned poison gas use.

• Machine Guns: Developed in the late 1800s, machine guns could fire over 500 rounds per minute, making it difficult for either side to gain territory.

• Submarines: Submarines wreaked havoc on Atlantic shipping lanes. Though primitive submarines had been used briefly in the American Civil War, their role expanded significantly in World War I.

• Airplanes: Initially used for reconnaissance, airplanes were later equipped with machine guns, leading to aerial combat known as "dogfights."

• Tanks: Developed by the British, tanks protected troops moving across difficult terrain and could fire at the enemy. They were originally called landships and disguised as water tanks during development.

Reasons for U.S. Entry:

• Economic Ties and Democratic Values: The U.S. had strong economic ties with the Allies and viewed them as more democratic than the Central Powers.

• German Aggression: Resentment against Germany grew, especially after U-boat attacks on civilian ships, including the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915, which killed over 100 U.S. citizens.

• Zimmermann Telegram: The final push came with the interception of the Zimmermann Telegram in January 1917, where Germany offered to help Mexico reclaim territory lost to the U.S. if it allied with Germany.

Total War

Commitment of Resources:

• Total War Strategy: Nations committed all resources to the war effort, involving both military and civilian populations. Millions of civilians, including women, worked in factories producing war materials. Workers from China helped in Britain, France, and Russia. Governments controlled economies, set production quotas, prices, wages, and rationed food and supplies.

• Censorship and Propaganda: Governments censored media and imprisoned those speaking against the war. Propaganda, meant to influence public attitudes, was heavily used. Posters and articles depicted the enemy crudely or spread inaccurate information. Emotional and misleading propaganda cultivating hatred and bitterness across borders.

A Global War

Worldwide Scope:

• Colonial Involvement: World War I was fought in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Major combatants ruled colonies in various regions, and competition for these colonies was a major reason for the war.

• Colonial Troops: Colonial troops reinforced home countries' forces. For instance, ANZAC troops from Australia and New Zealand fought in Gallipoli. Canadian troops fought in Europe, while Africans and Indians were drafted for combat roles. Gurkha soldiers from Nepal served in the Indian Army, and the French Army included Africans and Indochinese soldiers.

• Arab Involvement: Arabs, promised self-rule by the British, fought against the Ottoman Empire, aiding British conquests in Baghdad, Damascus, and Jerusalem.

Changing Roles:

• Labor and Military Roles: With many men enlisting, women took on roles in farms and factories. Thousands served on the front lines as nurses, ambulance drivers, and switchboard operators.

• Combat Roles: Although most countries forbade women from combat, Russia, Serbia, Romania, and Bulgaria allowed it. In 1917, Russia created an all-female battalion to shame men into continuing to fight.

The Paris Peace Conference

The Big Four:

• Key Leaders: The Paris Peace Conference featured leaders from the victorious countries: Woodrow Wilson (U.S.), David Lloyd George (Great Britain), Georges Clemenceau (France), and Vittorio Orlando (Italy). Russia, undergoing a communist revolution, was not invited.

• Differing Visions: Wilson sought "peace without victory," believing no country should be severely punished or rewarded. Clemenceau wanted special considerations for France and revenge on the Central Powers. Lloyd George often mediated between Wilson and Clemenceau.

Fourteen Points:

• Wilson's Principles: Wilson outlined his vision in the Fourteen Points, emphasizing the creation of the League of Nations to discuss conflicts openly and avoid future wars. However, the U.S. Senate voted against joining the League and ratifying the Treaty of Versailles.

Treaty of Versailles:

• Harsh Terms for Germany: The treaty imposed harsh penalties on Germany, including reparations, loss of colonies, and military restrictions. Germans took full blame for the war, leading to economic hardship and resentment. This set the stage for the rise of the Nazi Party.