4.3 - The Enlightenment

Definition of the Enlightenment

Introduction: The Enlightenment was a European intellectual movement in the 18th century that applied new methods of rational thinking to social and human institutions. This movement was characterized by a belief in the power of reason and science to improve society.

Key Emphases of the Enlightenment:

Rationalism:

• Enlightenment thinkers believed that the methods of science, as pioneered by figures like Kepler, Newton, and Galileo, could be used to improve society.

• Rationalism meant that everything in human life could and should be subjected to the process of reason.

Application of the Scientific Method:

• Just as the scientific method could be used to discover the laws of nature, Enlightenment thinkers believed it could also be used to discover the laws governing society.

Progress:

• Enlightenment thought was rooted in the belief that applying reason and scientific methods to social issues could lead to progress in the human spirit and society as a whole.

Key Enlightenment Thinkers:

Baron de Montesquieu:

• Montesquieu was a French noble who opposed the growth of absolutism under Louis XIV.

• In his book The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu argued that separating power into multiple branches of government, where each branch could check the others, was essential to avoid tyranny and promote equality.

Voltaire:

• Voltaire was one of the most famous and influential of the French philosophes, writing extensively on various topics.

• He was critical of the social and religious institutions in France, particularly the religious intolerance imposed by the Catholic Church.

• Despite his criticisms, Voltaire supported a form of enlightened absolutism, believing that while ordinary people might not be capable of self-governance, rulers should govern with Enlightenment principles in mind.

Denis Diderot:

• Diderot was responsible for compiling the Encyclopedia, a monumental work that cataloged the new Enlightenment worldview.

• This collaborative effort included contributions from many Enlightenment thinkers and contained over 72,000 articles on various aspects of human life, all viewed through the lens of Enlightenment thought.

• The Encyclopedia was highly influential, spreading Enlightenment ideas widely and shaping how people thought about the world.

Spread of Enlightenment Ideas:

Salons and Coffee Houses:

• In France, salons were private gatherings held in luxurious homes where intellectuals could discuss and debate new ideas.

• For those less wealthy, coffee houses provided a more accessible venue to engage in similar discussions, where people could buy a cup of coffee and debate the ideas of the day.

Enlightenment Politics

Introduction: One of the major areas of focus for Enlightenment thinkers was government and politics. Two key figures who made significant contributions to this field were John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Although they had nuanced differences, they shared some fundamental ideas that shaped modern political thought.

Natural Rights:

• Concept: Both Locke and Rousseau advanced the concept of natural rights, which are inherent rights that individuals possess simply by being human.

• John Locke’s View: In his Second Treatise on Civil Government, Locke articulated that people are born with certain inalienable rights, specifically the rights to life, liberty, and property. These rights, Locke argued, were granted by the Creator, making them fundamental and beyond the reach of any monarch to revoke.

• Implication: This idea was revolutionary in an age dominated by absolutism, as it asserted that rights were not granted by kings and could not be taken away by them. This challenged the existing power structures and suggested that individuals had a natural claim to certain freedoms.

The Social Contract:

• Concept: The second major political idea introduced by Locke and Rousseau was the concept of the social contract.

• Rousseau’s View: In his book The Social Contract, Rousseau argued that the authority to govern derives from the people, who agree to give up some of their power to a government in order to protect their natural rights. This agreement forms a contract between the governed and the government.

• Right to Overthrow: According to this theory, if the government becomes tyrannical and fails to protect the people's rights, the people have not just the right, but the responsibility, to overthrow it and establish a new government that will uphold their rights.

• Challenge to Divine Right: This concept directly challenged the divine right of kings, asserting that legitimate governance is based on the consent of the governed rather than on divine authority.

Gender Inequality and the Enlightenment:

• Rousseau’s Perspective: While Rousseau argued for the power of the people to govern, he did not extend this idea to women. He believed that men and women were inherently unequal, with women naturally destined to be subservient, focused on raising children and supporting their husbands.

• Mary Wollstonecraft’s Response: In the late 18th century, thinkers like Mary Wollstonecraft began to challenge this gendered inequality. In her seminal work, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, Wollstonecraft argued that women should have equal rights to men, including access to education and the opportunity to participate fully in society.

Adam Smith and the Wealth of Nations:

• Mercantilism: Prior to the Enlightenment, European nations largely followed mercantilist policies, where the state heavily regulated the economy to build up wealth and power.

• Adam Smith's Critique: Adam Smith, a key figure in the Scottish Enlightenment, criticized these mercantilist policies in his seminal work, The Wealth of Nations. He argued that governments should remove their control over the economy and allow individuals to make economic decisions based on their self-interest.

• Free Market and Free Trade: Smith posited that when people act in their self-interest, guided by the laws of supply and demand, it would lead to a flourishing economy. His ideas laid the theoretical foundation for the concepts of the free market and free trade, where economic activity is driven by individual choices rather than state intervention.

Physiocrats and Laissez-Faire Economics:

• French Physiocrats: At the same time, a group of French economic thinkers known as the Physiocrats were advocating for similar ideas. They believed in the importance of allowing economic processes to operate without state interference.

• Robert Jacques Turgot: One notable Physiocrat, Robert Jacques Turgot, championed the idea of laissez-faire economics in France, which literally translates to "let alone." Turgot argued that the government should have a minimal role in the economy, allowing people the freedom to make their own economic decisions regarding what to buy and what kind of work to contribute to society.

Enlightenment and Religion

Introduction: The Enlightenment was not only a period of intellectual and scientific progress but also a time when traditional religious beliefs were challenged and reinterpreted. Key thinkers of the Enlightenment put forward new ideas about religion that significantly altered the landscape of religious thought in Europe.

Deism:

• Voltaire and Deism: One of the most popular religious ideas during the Enlightenment was Deism, championed by Voltaire. Deism is the belief that God exists but is not involved in the day-to-day affairs of the world. According to Deism, God is like a clockmaker who created the universe, set it in motion, and then stepped back to let it run on its own.

• Challenge to Christianity: Deism posed a serious challenge to traditional Christian beliefs, which emphasized God's active and miraculous intervention in human history, most notably through the resurrection of Jesus Christ.

Skepticism:

• David Hume’s Skepticism: Another significant Enlightenment figure, David Hume, developed the idea of skepticism, which questioned the reliability of human knowledge. Hume argued that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience—what we see, hear, taste, touch, and smell.

• Limits of Knowledge: Since God and the creation of the universe cannot be experienced through the senses, Hume contended that they are not legitimate subjects of knowledge. This skeptical approach further undermined traditional religious claims.

Atheism:

• Diderot and Atheism: Denis Diderot, through his work on the Encyclopedia, helped to popularize atheism, the belief that no God exists. An atheist, as defined during this period, is someone who knows about the concept of God but consciously rejects the belief in God's existence.

Shift to Private Religious Belief:

• Impact of Enlightenment Critiques: The public attacks on religion during the Enlightenment led to a shift in how religion was perceived. Religious belief increasingly became a private, personal matter rather than a public or institutional one.

• Religious Revival Movements: In response to the rationalist and skeptical attitudes of the Enlightenment, religious revival movements emerged, emphasizing personal piety and individual experiences of God.

• Pietism and Methodism:

  • German Pietism: Led by Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf, German Pietism reacted against the rationalism of Lutheranism by emphasizing a mystical, personal relationship with God.

  • John Wesley and Methodism: Influenced by German Pietism, John Wesley, an Anglican preacher, started the Methodist movement. After a profound personal religious experience, Wesley preached in unconventional locations like streets and fields, promoting the idea that true Christianity was a matter of the heart and personal experience, rather than external rituals.