8.2 - The Cold War from 1945 to 1980

Origins of the Cold War

• Cold War Overview: The Cold War was an intense rivalry between the U.S. and the Soviet Union from the late 1940s until the Soviet Union's collapse in 1991, marked by indirect conflicts, diplomatic tensions, and the looming threat of nuclear war.

• Historians' Views: Some historians argue that Truman’s policies were a reasonable response to Soviet aggression, while others believe he overreacted or was too lenient in dealing with communism.

U.S.–Soviet Relations to 1945

• Wartime Alliance: The U.S. and Soviet Union's alliance during World War II was temporary, halting their generally poor relations since the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, which had caused deep mistrust in the U.S. toward Soviet communism.

• Post-War Tensions: Historical mistrust was fueled by events like the Soviet Nonaggression Pact with Nazi Germany in 1939, further souring relations.

Postwar Cooperation and the United Nations

• United Nations Formation: Established in 1945, the UN included a General Assembly for all member nations and a 15-member Security Council with permanent seats for the U.S., Soviet Union, Britain, France, and China, each holding veto power.

• Atomic Energy Disagreement: The Soviet Union's rejection of the U.S.-proposed Baruch Plan for regulating nuclear energy and eliminating atomic weapons was seen by American leaders as proof of Soviet aggression.

• World Bank Participation: The U.S. invited Soviet participation in the World Bank, created to fund post-war reconstruction, but the Soviets declined, viewing it as a capitalist tool.

Occupation Zones in Germany

• Division of Germany: Post-war Germany was divided into Soviet, French, British, and U.S. zones. The Soviet-controlled eastern zone evolved into the Communist German Democratic Republic, while the U.S. and Britain focused on economic recovery in the west.

• Conflict Over Reparations: The Soviets demanded heavy reparations from Germany, while the U.S. and Britain prioritized Germany’s economic recovery for European stability, leading to further tensions.

Iron Curtain and Get-Tough Policy

• Truman's Stance: By 1946, Truman was frustrated with Soviet actions, especially regarding Soviet espionage and continued occupation of northern Iran.

• Iron Curtain Speech: In March 1946, Winston Churchill, with Truman present, declared that an "iron curtain" had descended across Europe, symbolizing the division between Western democracies and Eastern communist states, and calling for Western unity against communism.

Containment in Europe

• Containment Policy: In 1947, President Truman adopted a containment policy aimed at preventing Soviet expansion and the spread of communism without provoking war.

• Criticism: Some critics, like journalist Walter Lippmann, believed the policy was too broad, arguing that not all regions were vital to U.S. interests and that the U.S. should not support all governments equally. However, the U.S. leadership, recalling the failures of appeasement before World War II, felt that any communist aggression must be confronted.

The Truman Doctrine

• First Implementation: Truman first applied containment in 1947 in response to threats in Greece (a Communist uprising) and Turkey (Soviet demands for control of the Dardanelles).

• Request to Congress: He asked Congress for $400 million in economic and military aid to support Greece and Turkey against "totalitarian" regimes, emphasizing the importance of defending free peoples.

The Marshall Plan

• Post-War Europe: After World War II, Europe was devastated, with widespread food shortages, debt, and economic instability. The harsh winter of 1946–1947 further increased the appeal of communism, particularly in France and Italy.

• Marshall Plan Proposal: In June 1947, George Marshall proposed a large-scale U.S. economic aid program to help European nations recover and strengthen their democratic governments. Congress approved $12 billion in aid in 1948 for Western Europe over four years.

• Soviet Rejection: The Soviet Union and its Eastern European allies refused the aid, fearing it would make them dependent on the U.S.

Effects of the Marshall Plan

• Success in Western Europe: The Marshall Plan achieved its goals, spurring economic growth in Western Europe by the 1950s and preventing the spread of communism. It also benefited the U.S. by increasing American exports to Europe.

• Worsened East-West Relations: The plan, while successful in rebuilding Western Europe, also deepened the divide between the non-Communist West and the Communist East.

The Berlin Airlift

• Berlin Blockade (1948): The Soviets cut off all land access to West Berlin, trying to force the Allies out of the city. Truman refused to withdraw or use force and instead initiated a massive airlift to supply the city.

• Airlift Success: U.S. planes delivered essential supplies to West Berlin for 11 months. The Soviets eventually lifted the blockade in May 1949, avoiding a direct conflict.

• Long-Term Consequence: The crisis led to the formal division of Germany into West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany, U.S. ally) and East Germany (German Democratic Republic, Soviet satellite).

NATO and National Security

• Formation of NATO (1949): Truman broke with U.S. tradition by forming a permanent military alliance with Western European nations and Canada. NATO aimed to defend against potential Soviet aggression.

• Soviet Response: The Soviets countered by forming the Warsaw Pact in 1955, a military alliance for Eastern European Communist states.

National Security Act (1947)

• Military Modernization: The National Security Act centralized the U.S. military under the Department of Defense, created the National Security Council (NSC) for foreign policy coordination, and established the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) for intelligence gathering.

• Military Draft: The Selective Service System and a peacetime draft were also instituted in 1948.

Atomic Weapons and the Arms Race

• Arms Race Begins: The U.S. held a monopoly on atomic bombs until 1949, when the Soviets successfully tested their own. This sparked an intense arms race.

• Development of the Hydrogen Bomb: In response to the Soviet atomic bomb, Truman approved the development of the hydrogen bomb, a weapon far more powerful than the atomic bomb, which was added to the U.S. arsenal in 1952.

• NSC-68 Recommendations (1950): This secret report called for a significant increase in U.S. defense spending, public support for an arms buildup, and forming global alliances to counter the spread of communism.

Cold War in Asia

• Containment Policy in Asia: Unlike in Europe, the U.S. containment policy was less successful in Asia, where former colonies became new nations with distinct cultural and political traditions, often resisting U.S. influence.

The Korean War

• Division of Korea: After Japan's defeat in World War II, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel, with the Soviet-backed Communist regime under Kim Il Sung in the North and the U.S.-backed nationalist government under Syngman Rhee in the South.

Invasion and U.S. Response

• North Korean Invasion (June 25, 1950): North Korea invaded South Korea, surprising the world. Truman immediately applied his containment policy, leading the UN to authorize a force to defend South Korea, primarily made up of U.S. troops under General Douglas MacArthur.

• "Police Action": Although U.S. forces were heavily involved, Congress did not declare war, framing the intervention as a "police action" under the UN's auspices.

Counterattack and Chinese Involvement

• Inchon Landing: MacArthur launched a successful amphibious assault at Inchon, pushing North Korean forces back towards the Chinese border.

• Chinese Counterattack: Ignoring warnings from China, MacArthur's advance prompted a massive Chinese intervention, pushing UN forces back to the 38th parallel.

Truman vs. MacArthur

• MacArthur's Dismissal: MacArthur publicly advocated for expanding the war into China, which led to his dismissal by Truman for insubordination. MacArthur returned as a hero, while Truman faced criticism for not pursuing a total victory over communism in Asia.

Stalemate and Political Consequences

• Stalemate: The war reached a stalemate near the 38th parallel, leading to peace talks beginning in 1951.

• Cold War Strategy: Truman's containment policy succeeded in preventing the spread of communism without escalating into a global conflict. The Korean War justified increased U.S. military spending and global troop deployments.

Sputnik Shock (1957)

• Soviet Achievement: The Soviet Union launched Sputnik I and Sputnik II, the first satellites, into orbit, challenging U.S. technological leadership.

• U.S. Response: The U.S. faced repeated failures in launching similar rockets, leading to criticism of the American education system, particularly in math and science.

• Government Action: In 1958, Congress passed the National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) to improve math, science, and foreign language education, and created NASA to spearhead space exploration and missile development.

• Nuclear Fears: The Sputnik launch intensified fears of nuclear war, as the same missiles could carry nuclear warheads worldwide within minutes.

Second Berlin Crisis (1958-1959)

• Khrushchev’s Threat: Soviet leader Khrushchev demanded the West withdraw from West Berlin, threatening to turn the city over to East Germany.

• Diplomatic Response: Eisenhower invited Khrushchev to the U.S., leading to the Camp David talks where the crisis was temporarily defused, and a follow-up summit was scheduled.

U-2 Incident (1960)

• Spy Plane Shot Down: A U.S. U-2 spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union, revealing that the U.S. had been conducting secret surveillance flights.

• Diplomatic Fallout: Eisenhower took responsibility, but the incident led Khrushchev to walk out of the planned Paris summit, reigniting Cold War tensions.

Communism in Cuba (1959)

• Fidel Castro's Rise: Castro overthrew Cuban dictator Batista and soon aligned Cuba with the Soviet Union, establishing a Communist state.

• U.S. Reaction: Eisenhower cut off trade with Cuba and authorized the CIA to train Cuban exiles for an invasion to overthrow Castro, leaving the final decision to his successor, John F. Kennedy.

Eisenhower’s Legacy

• Cold War Management: Eisenhower claimed credit for containing communism and maintaining peace without American combat casualties.

• Arms Limitation: In 1958, he initiated the suspension of aboveground nuclear testing, starting the process of arms control.

• Warning on Military-Industrial Complex: In his farewell address, Eisenhower cautioned against the growing influence of the military-industrial complex, warning it could lead the U.S. down a dangerous path, reminiscent of imperial Rome.

Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)

• Failed Invasion: Kennedy approved a CIA plan to use Cuban exiles to overthrow Fidel Castro. The invasion at the Bay of Pigs failed, leading to the capture of the exiles and strengthening Castro's ties with the Soviet Union.

Berlin Wall (1961)

• Soviet Threats: After the Bay of Pigs, Soviet leader Khrushchev demanded the U.S. withdraw from West Berlin. Kennedy refused, leading to the construction of the Berlin Wall by East Germany, backed by the Soviets.

• Kennedy's Speech: In 1963, Kennedy visited West Berlin and delivered his famous "Ich bin ein Berliner" speech, reaffirming U.S. support for the city's freedom.

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

• Missile Threat: The U.S. discovered Soviet missiles being constructed in Cuba. Kennedy responded with a naval blockade, risking nuclear war.

• Resolution: After intense negotiations, Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for a U.S. promise not to invade Cuba and to remove U.S. missiles from Turkey.

• Aftermath: The crisis led to the establishment of a hotline between Washington and Moscow and the signing of the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963, though the arms race continued.

Nixon’s Détente Diplomacy

• Nixon’s Focus on Foreign Policy: In his 1969 inaugural address, President Nixon emphasized the need to unify America after the turmoil of the 1960s, with a strong focus on international relations over domestic policy.

• Realist Foreign Policy: Nixon, along with his national security adviser Henry Kissinger, developed a pragmatic foreign policy that aimed to end the Vietnam War and reduce Cold War tensions.

• Détente: Nixon and Kissinger capitalized on the rivalry between China and the Soviet Union, leading to a deliberate reduction in Cold War tensions. Their diplomacy was credited with enhancing global peace.

Visit to China (1972)

• Opening Relations: Nixon, known for his strong anti-communist stance, surprised the world by visiting China in 1972, meeting with Mao Zedong. This visit initiated diplomatic exchanges that eventually led to the U.S. recognizing Communist China in 1979.

Arms Control with the U.S.S.R.

• SALT I Agreement: Nixon used improved relations with China to pressure the Soviet Union into signing a treaty that limited anti ballistic missiles (ABMs). The Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT I) resulted in an agreement to freeze the number of ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads, marking a significant step in reducing Cold War tensions.

Another Chill in the Cold War

• Nixon’s Resignation and Aftermath: Nixon’s resignation in 1974, due to the Watergate scandal, coupled with the fall of South Vietnam in 1975, led to a loss of trust in the U.S. government.