3.6 - Balance Of Power

Maintaining the Balance of Power

Introduction: After the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which ended the religious motivations for warfare, European states shifted their focus to maintaining the balance of power. This principle became the new driver of tensions among states, as each sought to ensure that no one state could dominate the others.

The Principle of Balance of Power:

• During this period, European states operated largely on the basis of self-interest, aiming to maintain an equilibrium of power to prevent any single state from becoming too dominant.

• Although maintaining the balance of power might sound like a peaceful objective, it often led to the opposite. To achieve this balance, rulers began building up their armies, ostensibly for defensive purposes but frequently using them offensively as well.

Diplomacy and Dynastic Interests:

• The effort to maintain the balance of power not only led to wars but also to new diplomatic efforts. Diplomacy during this time was primarily focused on dynastic interests, where rulers sought to secure power and land for their heirs through agreements rather than through conflict.

• Diplomacy became a crucial tool in managing the balance of power, as states negotiated to avoid outright warfare whenever possible.

The Partition of Poland:

• The principle of maintaining the balance of power played a significant role in the partition of Poland, which effectively erased Poland from the map for 150 years.

• The Commonwealth of Poland, despite being the largest territorial state in Europe at the time, was weakened by internal issues such as a weak monarchy, a lack of a robust bureaucracy, and nearly constant warfare.

• Surrounded by powerful absolutist states—Russia, Prussia, and Austria—Poland was vulnerable. Russia's victory against the Ottoman Empire upset the balance of power, prompting Frederick II of Prussia to propose that Russia expand into Poland rather than the Ottoman territories.

• In 1772, Russia, Austria, and Prussia signed a treaty that partitioned Poland, dividing its territory among the three powers. Subsequent agreements over the next 25 years resulted in the complete annexation of Poland by these states.

War and the Balance of Power in Europe

Introduction: The principle of maintaining the balance of power across Europe often led to conflicts between states. As European rulers sought to ensure that no single state became too powerful, wars became a frequent method to preserve this delicate balance.

The Ottoman Empire and the Battle of Vienna:

• In the 17th century, the Ottoman Empire was a significant power, holding territories in Southeastern Europe and seeking to expand further into Central Europe.

• The Ottomans attempted to invade Austria in 1683 during the Battle of Vienna, aiming to secure better trade routes along the Danube River.

• To prevent this expansion and maintain the balance of power, the Austrian Habsburgs, supported by Poland and the Holy Roman Empire, united to stop the Ottoman advance. They were successful, and this battle marked a turning point in European history as it halted Ottoman expansion into Eastern Europe.

Louis XIV and His Wars:

• The French monarch Louis XIV engaged in nearly constant warfare to pursue his own dynastic and state interests, significantly impacting the balance of power in Europe.

• Reasons for Louis XIV's Wars:

  • Territorial Expansion: Louis sought to expand the territory of France.

  • Weakening Habsburg Influence: He aimed to reduce the power of the Habsburgs, who had significant influence across Europe.

  • Personal Glory: Louis desired to increase his own prestige and power.

• Key Wars of Louis XIV:

  • The Dutch War (1672-1678): Louis XIV fought to gain territory in the Spanish Netherlands and weaken the Habsburgs. Although ultimately unsuccessful, this war demonstrated Louis's ambitions.

  • The Nine Years' War (1688-1697): Louis attempted to push into the Holy Roman Empire, threatening the balance of power. In response, several European states, including the Habsburgs, the Dutch Republic, England, Spain, Sweden, and Portugal, formed the Grand Alliance to oppose him. The war ended with Louis facing stiff resistance, resulting in a stalemate.

  • The War of Spanish Succession (1701-1713): This war was primarily about Louis's dynastic ambitions. When Charles II of Spain died, it was arranged for Philip V, Louis XIV's grandson, to succeed him. This potential consolidation of France and Spain under a single throne alarmed many European states, leading to a coalition of England, the United Provinces, Austria, and Prussia fighting against France, Spain, and Bavaria.

    • The war ended with the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, which allowed Philip V to remain on the Spanish throne but required that France and Spain remain separate entities, thus preserving the balance of power in Europe.

Military Developments and the Balance of Power

Introduction: During this period, the military structures of European states underwent significant changes, marking what some historians call a "military revolution." These changes played a crucial role in maintaining the balance of power across Europe.

The Rise of Professional Standing Armies:

• Prior to this period, states would declare war and then raise armies as needed. However, this practice changed as states began commissioning and paying for professional standing armies.

• These standing armies were maintained even in peacetime, representing a major shift in military strategy and organization.

Expansion of Armies:

• The size of these professional armies grew significantly, with Louis XIV of France commanding the largest standing army of nearly 400,000 soldiers—an unprecedented figure at the time.

• Other absolute states followed suit, increasing the size and strength of their armies to compete in the European power dynamic.

Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden:

• Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was a key figure in this military revolution, recognized for his military genius.

• He built a highly organized professional standing army with a clear hierarchical structure, ensuring that the chain of command was well-defined.

• His innovations in military organization and tactics set new standards across Europe.

Advances in Military Technology:

• The period saw significant advancements in military technology, including improvements in firearms, the development of mobile cannons, and the construction of more elaborate fortifications.

• These technological innovations increased the effectiveness of European armies and played a vital role in their success on the battlefield.

Funding the Military Expansion:

• The expansion of military forces required substantial financial resources. Rulers like Adolphus, as well as others across Europe, funded their armies through increased taxation and the expansion of bureaucratic systems to manage the growing revenues.

• This combination of military and administrative expansion was essential for sustaining the large standing armies and ensuring their effectiveness.

Impact on the Balance of Power:

• The development of professional standing armies and the advancements in military technology significantly affected the balance of power in Europe.

• Nations that successfully expanded and modernized their military forces were better positioned to maintain or enhance their power within the European system.