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The Mongols and Their Surroundings
In the 12th century, the Mongols were pastoral nomads, herding goats and sheep while also engaging in hunting and foraging. They lived north of the Gobi Desert in East Asia, where the harsh conditions of the arid steppes influenced their culture. Both men and women were expected to be skilled horse riders, and courage in hunting and warfare was highly valued.
The Mongols were surrounded by other tribes such as the Tatars, Naimans, Merkits, and the powerful Jurchen in northern China. They envied the relative wealth of tribes and kingdoms closer to the Silk Roads, which had better access to luxury goods like silk and gold.
Genghis Khan
Temujin's Rise:
Born in 1162, Temujin spent his early life forming tribal alliances and defeating rival groups.
Strategic marriages and alliances were key to his rise; he sometimes appointed talented non-family members over relatives.
Known for his ruthlessness, he killed his own step brother to consolidate power.
In 1206, he was elected khan at a kuriltai and took the name Genghis Khan, meaning “ruler of all.”
The Beginning of Conquest
In 1210, Genghis Khan attacked the Jin Empire, established by the Jurchens, which ruled parts of China. His reputation as a brutal warrior spread quickly; he often annihilated entire towns that resisted. By 1227, his empire extended from the North China Sea to eastern Persia.
Genghis Khan at War
Military Tactics:
Mongol soldiers were excellent horse riders and archers, highly disciplined, and organized under an efficient command structure.
Employed strategic communication and specialized units to map terrain.
Used psychological warfare, feigned retreats, and surprise attacks to outmaneuver enemies.
Recruited skilled workers from conquered territories, using others as laborers or frontline fodder.
Incorporated advanced siege weapons and communication methods, such as a pony express for oral messages.
Genghis Khan at Peace
Governance:
Established the Pax Mongolica, ensuring peace and stability across his empire.
Built the capital at Karakorum, consulting with scholars and engineers from various cultures.
Instituted religious tolerance and protected trade routes like the Silk Roads, cultivating trade and cultural exchanges.
Attempted to unify the empire with a common alphabet, though this effort was not fully successful.
Mongolian Empire Expands
Batu and the Golden Horde:
In 1236, Batu led the Golden Horde into Russia, demanding tribute from conquered territories.
After defeating European knights, Batu halted further expansion due to the death of Ogodei Khan.
The Mongols ruled Russia indirectly, collecting tributes through local rulers until resistance led to the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.
Hulegu and the Islamic Heartlands:
Hulegu destroyed Baghdad in 1258 and ruled the Il-khanate, initially tolerating all religions.
After converting to Islam, he supported massacres of Jews and Christians.
Kublai Khan and the Yuan Dynasty
Conquest of China:
Kublai Khan conquered the Song Dynasty and established the Yuan Dynasty, rebuilding the capital at Dadu (modern Beijing).
Promoted religious tolerance and prosperity through trade and cultural exchanges.
Mongol women enjoyed more independence, participating in public life and managing livestock.
Mongols Lose Power
Decline:
Mongol leaders eventually alienated the Chinese by favoring foreigners for government positions and dismantling the civil service exam.
Failed expansion attempts weakened their power, leading to the Yuan Dynasty's overthrow by the Ming Dynasty in 1368.
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