4.2 - The Rise of Political Parties and the Era of Jefferson

Jefferson’s Presidency

• Policies:

  • Maintaining Federalist Policies: Retained the national bank and debt-repayment plan.

  • Limited Government: Reduced military size, eliminated federal jobs, repealed excise taxes, and lowered national debt.

  • Party Loyalty: Appointed only Democratic-Republicans to his cabinet to avoid internal conflicts.

The Louisiana Purchase

• Background:

  • French Control: Napoleon Bonaparte regained the Louisiana Territory from Spain with plans to restore the French empire in the Americas.

  • Napoleon's Change of Plans: Decided to sell the territory to focus on European conflicts and after the loss of Santo Domingo to a slave rebellion led by Toussaint Louverture.

• U.S. Interests:

  • Economic and Strategic Concerns: Western settlers relied on the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans for trade.

  • Negotiations: Jefferson authorized diplomats to offer $10 million for New Orleans and adjacent territory. The French offered the entire Louisiana Territory for $15 million.

• Constitutional Issues:

  • Jefferson's Dilemma: As a strict constructionist, Jefferson was concerned that the Constitution did not explicitly authorize the purchase of foreign land.

  • Treaty Power: Justified the purchase as part of the president’s treaty-making powers. The Senate ratified the purchase despite Federalist opposition.

• Consequences:

  • Expansion: Doubled the size of the U.S. and removed European presence from its borders.

  • Agrarian Vision: Supported Jefferson's vision of a nation of independent farmers.

  • Political Impact: Increased Jefferson’s popularity and showed the Federalists’ regional limitations.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

• Purpose: Commissioned by Jefferson to explore the newly acquired Louisiana Territory and beyond.

• Achievements:

  • Geographic and Scientific Knowledge: Mapped the region, documented new species, and established stronger U.S. claims to the Oregon Territory.

  • Relations with American Indians: Improved understanding and relations with various tribes.

  • Practical Benefits: Provided valuable information and routes for future settlers and fur trappers.

Judicial Impeachments

• Jefferson’s Efforts: Jefferson sought to overturn Federalist influence by suspending the Alien and Sedition Acts and releasing those jailed under them.

• Outcome: While the campaign largely failed, it pressured judges to be more cautious and less partisan.

Jefferson’s Reelection (1804)

• Victory: Jefferson won reelection overwhelmingly, securing all but 14 of 176 electoral votes.

Aaron Burr

• Vice Presidency: Not renominated in 1804, leading to controversial actions.

• Federalist Conspiracy:

  • Plan: Burr conspired with radical Federalists to secede New York and New England from the Union.

  • Failure: Defeated in the New York governorship election, leading to the conspiracy's collapse.

• Duel with Hamilton: Burr killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel, resulting in his political downfall and Hamilton’s death.

• Trial for Treason:

  • Mexico Plot: Burr planned to take Mexico from Spain and unite it with Louisiana.

  • Arrest and Trial: Jefferson ordered Burr’s arrest. Acquitted due to Chief Justice John Marshall's narrow definition of treason and lack of evidence.

John Marshall’s Supreme Court and Federal Power

• Influence: Chief Justice John Marshall favored a strong central government and property rights, often opposing states’ rights advocates.

• Tenure: Appointed by John Adams, served for 34 years, shaping the Supreme Court's role and interpretation of the Constitution.

John Marshall

• Federalist Judge: Despite being Jefferson’s cousin, he often ruled in ways that frustrated Jefferson.

• Legacy: Marshall’s decisions reinforced the idea of a strong federal government with flexible powers, influencing even Democratic-Republican appointed justices.

Influential Cases

John Marshall’s tenure as Chief Justice resulted in several landmark decisions that defined the balance of power between the federal government and the states.

Note: Underlined cases are the ones you guranteed must know.

• Marbury v. Madison (1803):

  • Context: President John Adams made several "midnight appointments" of Federalist judges, but their commissions were not delivered before Jefferson took office. Jefferson ordered James Madison to withhold the commissions.

  • Ruling: Marshall declared that Marbury had a right to his commission based on the Judiciary Act of 1789. However, he also ruled that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional, thus establishing the principle of judicial review.

  • Significance: This case established the Supreme Court's authority to declare acts of Congress or the President unconstitutional, reinforcing the system of checks and balances.

• Fletcher v. Peck (1810):

  • Context: Involved land fraud in Georgia.

  • Ruling: Marshall concluded that a state could not pass legislation invalidating a contract.

  • Significance: First time the Supreme Court declared a state law unconstitutional, reinforcing the sanctity of contracts.

• Martin v. Hunter’s Lease (1816):

  • Ruling: Established that the Supreme Court had jurisdiction over state courts in cases involving constitutional rights.

• Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819):

  • Context: New Hampshire law attempted to change Dartmouth College from a private to a public institution.

  • Ruling: Marshall ruled that the state law was unconstitutional, stating that a contract for a private corporation could not be altered by the state.

  • Significance: Strengthened the protection of private contracts against state interference.

• McCulloch v. Maryland (1819):

  • Context: Maryland attempted to tax the Second Bank of the United States.

  • Ruling: Marshall ruled that a state could not tax a federal institution, citing "the power to tax is the power to destroy" and that federal laws are supreme over state laws.

  • Significance: Affirmed the constitutionality of the national bank using the doctrine of implied powers.

• Cohens v. Virginia (1821):

  • Context: The Cohen brothers were convicted of illegally selling lottery tickets in Virginia.

  • Ruling: While upholding the conviction, the Supreme Court established its authority to review state court decisions involving federal powers.

  • Significance: Reinforced the Supreme Court's power to review state court decisions in matters concerning federal authority.

• Gibbons v. Ogden (1824):

  • Context: Involved a New York state law granting a monopoly to a steamboat company that conflicted with a federal charter.

  • Ruling: Marshall ruled that the New York monopoly was unconstitutional.

  • Significance: Established the federal government's broad control over interstate commerce.