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Introduction to a New Unit: 1648 to 1815 in AP European History
Overview:
This period marks significant political developments across Europe, particularly the rise of absolutism in many continental states and the establishment of a constitutional government in England.
Absolutism in Continental Europe:
France, Prussia, Austria, and Russia: These states moved toward a form of monarchy known as absolutism, where the monarch held absolute power without being constrained by laws or other governing bodies.
England’s Constitutional Government:
Limited Monarchy: Unlike the continental powers, England developed a constitutional government, meaning the power of the monarch was limited by the rule of law.
Shared Power: The English monarch was required to share power with the English Parliament, the legislative body representing the interests of the English people.
Points of Tension:
Divine Right of Kings:
The doctrine of the divine right of kings suggested that just as God granted spiritual authority to the Church, He also granted political authority to the king.
Implications:
Challenging the king’s authority was seen as a direct challenge to God.
The belief that God’s authority made the king infallible created significant tensions, especially with Parliament.
Charles I and the Divine Right:
Charles I succeeded James I on the English throne and was a staunch believer in the divine right of kings.
Charles I’s Interpretation:
He believed that as God’s representative on Earth, he could exercise absolute power, including seizing land at will, which led to conflicts with Parliament, particularly the House of Commons.
The House of Commons and Tensions Leading to the English Civil War
Role of the House of Commons:
Constitutional Standards: The House of Commons, the lower house of the English Parliament, played a critical role in upholding England's constitutional standards, particularly the principle that land could only be seized through due process of law.
Conflict with Charles I:
Charles I’s Actions: Charles I believed in the divine right of kings, which he interpreted as having the authority to do whatever he wanted, including seizing land without legal justification.
Parliamentary Opposition: The House of Commons opposed Charles's actions, reminding him that under English law, his actions were unconstitutional.
Economic Tensions:
Debt from the Thirty Years' War:
Unapproved Spending: Both Charles I and his father, James I, accumulated significant debt during England’s participation in the Thirty Years' War, often spending money without Parliament’s authorization.
Parliament’s Reaction: This unapproved spending led to increasing tension between the crown and Parliament, as the representatives of the people sought to rein in the king’s extravagant expenditures.
Charles I’s Response:
Dissolution of Parliament:
To circumvent the growing opposition from Parliament, Charles I dissolved Parliament and refused to call them into session from 1629 to 1640, a period known as Charles's Personal Rule.
This move further escalated tensions between the monarchy and Parliament, setting the stage for the English Civil War.
Personal Rule of Charles I (1629-1640)
Overview:
Personal Rule: The period from 1629 to 1640 is known as Charles I’s Personal Rule because he ruled without Parliament, doing whatever he wanted without the interference of parliamentarians, who were concerned with their rights and the rule of law.
Financial Crisis:
Empty Treasury: By 1640, Charles I’s finances were depleted, and he needed funds to address a rebellion in Scotland.
Short Parliament (1640):
Brief Session: To raise the necessary funds, Charles called Parliament back into session, but they refused to cooperate with his demands, leading him to dismiss them after a short period.
Long Parliament (1640-1660):
New Elections: After dismissing the Short Parliament, Charles called for new elections, leading to the formation of the Long Parliament, which would play a significant role in the events leading up to the English Civil War.
The Long Parliament and the Causes of the English Civil War
Long Parliament (1640-1660):
Tensions with Charles I:
After dismissing the Short Parliament, Charles I called for new elections, leading to the formation of the Long Parliament.
When Charles didn’t get what he wanted from the Long Parliament, he attempted to dismiss them, but the members of Parliament resisted, leading to escalating tensions.
Religious Tensions:
Anglican Church and Puritans:
Background: The Anglican Church was established by Henry VIII, not as a radical departure from Catholicism, but mainly because the Pope refused to grant him a divorce. As a result, the Anglican Church retained many Catholic elements in its form and liturgy.
Rise of Puritanism:
The Puritans, a group of English clergy, sought to remove all remaining Catholic practices from the Anglican Church, aiming to "purify" it.
Conflict with the Monarchy: James I, Charles I’s father, ignored Puritan demands, and tensions escalated when Charles I married a Catholic, further alienating the Puritans and intensifying religious tensions.
Summary of Causes Leading to the English Civil War:
Absolutism vs. Constitutionalism:
Charles I’s attempts to rule as an absolute monarch clashed with the English Parliament's efforts to limit his power and maintain constitutional governance.
Religious Conflict:
The Puritans' desire to reform the Anglican Church and Charles I's marriage to a Catholic contributed to the religious divide.
Economic Strains:
The financial pressures from the Thirty Years' War and Charles’s unauthorized spending without Parliament's consent added to the conflict.
Civil War:
The English Civil War emerged as a struggle to determine whether England would be ruled by an absolute monarch or exist as a constitutional monarchy.
Charles I's Response: He fled to northern England, raising an army composed of the nobility and rural gentry, while Parliament formed the New Model Army to oppose him.
The New Model Army and the English Civil War
New Model Army:
Formation and Victory:
The New Model Army was formed by Parliament as a disciplined and effective military force to challenge King Charles I’s forces during the English Civil War.
The New Model Army eventually emerged victorious in the conflict, decisively defeating the king’s forces.
Oliver Cromwell:
Leadership: A key figure in the New Model Army was Oliver Cromwell, a Puritan parliamentarian who took leadership of the army.
Defeating the King: Cromwell’s leadership was crucial in crushing the royalist forces, ultimately leading to the capture of King Charles I.
Rump Parliament:
Cromwell’s Consolidation of Power:
After capturing the king, Cromwell removed all members of Parliament who opposed him, leaving only his supporters, a group known as the Rump Parliament.
Trial and Execution of Charles I:
The Rump Parliament tried King Charles I for treason, found him guilty, and ultimately executed him by beheading.
England as a Republic:
Following the king’s execution, England was declared a republic, known as the Protectorate, under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell.
The Protectorate and the Restoration Period
The Protectorate (1653-1659):
Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector:
Following the English Civil War and the execution of King Charles I, Oliver Cromwell was named Lord Protector of England.
The Protectorate’s Structure:
On paper, the Protectorate was a republic with legislative authority entrusted to the remaining members of Parliament and executive authority given to a council.
Reality of Governance: In practice, England was ruled by the army, with Cromwell wielding significant power, effectively turning the Protectorate into a military dictatorship rather than the constitutional republic that had been envisioned.
Cromwell’s Rule:
Conflict with Parliament: Cromwell attempted to work with Parliament to govern England, but when they did not comply with his wishes, he dismissed them, ruling by force.
Military Dictatorship: For nearly a decade, Cromwell governed England as a military dictator, the very form of rule he had fought against during the Civil War.
End of the Protectorate:
Cromwell’s Death and Collapse of the Protectorate:
Upon Cromwell’s death in 1658, the Protectorate quickly fell apart, leaving England in a state of instability.
Desire for Stability:
The English people, weary of military rule, desired a return to stability, which led to the restoration of the monarchy.
The Restoration Period (1660):
Return of the Monarchy:
In 1660, Parliament restored the monarchy by inviting Charles II to take the throne, marking the beginning of the Restoration Period.
Charles II’s Reign:
Although Charles II collaborated with France and struggled to work effectively with Parliament, his reign marked a return to monarchical rule.
James II and Rising Tensions:
Charles II was succeeded by his brother, James II, who exacerbated tensions by appointing Catholics to important positions, further alienating Parliament.
Parliament’s Response:
Frustrated with James II’s actions, Parliament eventually offered the throne to his daughter, Mary, leading to significant changes in the English monarchy.
Mary & William of Orange and the Glorious Revolution
Mary and William of Orange:
Background: In response to the tensions caused by James II’s actions, Parliament offered the English throne to James II’s daughter, Mary, and her husband, William of Orange.
James II’s Abdication:
Upon hearing of Parliament’s plan, James II fled England, effectively abdicating the throne, which was then passed to William and Mary in 1689.
The Glorious Revolution (1688-1689):
Bloodless Revolution?
This transfer of power is often referred to as the Glorious Revolution because it was a relatively bloodless change of monarchs. However, there were some rebellions and bloodshed associated with the transition.
End of the Divine Right of Kings:
With the ascension of William and Mary, the idea of the divine right of kings in England was effectively ended, marking a significant shift in the English monarchy.
English Bill of Rights (1689):
Conditions for Accepting the Throne:
William and Mary accepted the throne on the condition that they abide by the English Bill of Rights, a document that limited the power of the monarchy and protected the authority of Parliament.
Key Provisions:
Taxation: Only Parliament had the power to raise taxes.
Legislation: Laws passed by Parliament could not be annulled by the king, ensuring that the monarch’s power was checked by the legislative body.
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