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Postwar Economy under Truman
Truman’s Leadership: After FDR's death, Harry S. Truman became president and sought to continue New Deal policies, but faced growing conservative opposition.
Employment Act of 1946
Progressive Measures: Truman pushed for national health insurance, an increased minimum wage, and full employment. The final version of the Employment Act of 1946 created the Council of Economic Advisers to guide economic policy but was less ambitious than Truman had hoped.
GI Bill—Help for Veterans
Support for Veterans: The GI Bill (1944) helped 15 million veterans transition to civilian life, providing funds for education and loans for homes, farms, and businesses. This boosted the postwar economy by increasing education and promoting new construction.
Racial Inequities: However, Black veterans often faced discrimination, with fewer opportunities to use educational benefits or obtain loans, widening the racial wealth gap.
Baby Boom
Population Growth: Postwar confidence led to a surge in marriages and births, with 50 million babies born between 1945 and 1960. This "baby boom" had lasting effects on U.S. society and the economy.
Women in the Workforce: While many women focused on homemaking, the trend of women working outside the home continued, with one-third of married women employed by 1960.
Suburban Growth
Housing Boom and Segregation: The postwar demand for housing led to a suburban construction boom, such as Levittown, a mass-produced suburban development. However, Levittown was only for White families; African American families were not allowed to buy homes there. Federal policies at the time supported segregation in housing, subsidizing loans for White families while excluding many Black families.
Impact on Cities: The mass movement to suburbia had a devastating impact on older inner cities. By the 1960s, cities from Boston to Los Angeles became increasingly poor and racially divided as wealthier, predominantly White families moved to the suburbs.
Return to Traditional Roles: The suburban lifestyle often led to a return to more traditional roles, with more women focusing on homemaking, reminiscent of earlier times. However, the trend of women entering the workforce continued to grow despite this shift.
Truman versus the Republican Congress
Republican Victory in 1946: Discontent with inflation and strikes led voters to elect Republican majorities in Congress. The 80th Congress, under Republican control, aimed to pass tax cuts for the wealthy, which Truman vetoed, and attempted to roll back New Deal labor gains.
Twenty-Second Amendment (1951): Reacting to FDR's four terms, Congress passed an amendment limiting presidents to two terms, ratified in 1951.
Taft-Hartley Act (1947): Congress passed this probusiness law despite Truman's veto. It aimed to limit union power by:
Outlawing the closed shop (union membership before hiring).
Allowing states to pass "right to work" laws, banning mandatory union membership after hiring.
Banning secondary boycotts (other unions supporting a striking union).
Giving the president authority to impose an 80-day cooling-off period before strikes that threatened national safety.
The Election of 1948
Despite low popularity and splits within his party, Truman campaigned vigorously against the "do-nothing" Republican Congress, leading to a surprising victory over Republican Thomas E. Dewey, winning by 2 million popular votes and 303 electoral votes.
The Fair Deal: Truman proposed an ambitious reform agenda including national health insurance, federal aid to education, civil rights legislation, public housing funds, and a new farm program. Most proposals were blocked by Congress due to political conflicts and Cold War priorities. However, the minimum wage was increased, and more workers were included under Social Security. Truman's efforts kept New Deal reforms intact and showed civil rights in the liberal agenda.
Eisenhower in the White House (1953–1961)
Eisenhower’s Appeal: Eisenhower, known as “Ike,” became a symbol of the 1950s, loved and trusted by millions for his role as a successful general during World War II. The slogan “I Like Ike” reflected his popularity among middle-class Americans.
The Election of 1952: With Americans tired of the Korean War and "the mess in Washington," Eisenhower and his running mate, Richard Nixon, were nominated by the Republicans. They defeated Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson, winning 55% of the popular vote and an overwhelming Electoral College victory.
Interstate Highway System: One of Eisenhower's most lasting legacies was the 1956 Highway Act, which led to the construction of 42,000 miles of interstate highways. This project boosted the economy, created jobs, and promoted suburban growth but also negatively impacted railroads and the environment, with little focus on public transportation.
Prosperity: The economy during Eisenhower’s presidency saw steady growth, with low inflation and rising disposable income for Americans. By the mid-1950s, the average American family had double the real income of a family in the 1920s, giving the United States the highest standard of living in the world at the time. Eisenhower’s economic policies are considered among the most successful of modern presidents.
Kennedy’s New Frontier
Kennedy’s Style: John F. Kennedy brought a new, dynamic style to the presidency, emphasizing youth, energy, and a focus on the future.
New Frontier Programs: Kennedy’s domestic agenda, known as the New Frontier, aimed to address education, health care, urban renewal, and civil rights. However, many of these initiatives struggled in Congress and were only passed later under President Lyndon B. Johnson.
Johnson’s Domestic Reforms
Transition to Presidency: After Kennedy’s assassination in 1963, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson became president and quickly pushed through major legislation that Kennedy had struggled to pass.
The Great Society: Johnson’s significant domestic initiatives, known as the "Great Society," aimed to address societal issues, marking the peak of liberalism in the 20th century. Although some programs were successful, many were reduced due to the costly Vietnam War.
Nixon’s Domestic Policy
The New Federalism: Nixon’s policy, known as the New Federalism, aimed to slow down the growth of federal programs by shifting responsibilities to state and local governments. Congress provided $30 billion in block grants to local governments over five years to address their specific needs.
Economic Policies: Facing "stagflation" (economic stagnation and inflation), Nixon initially cut federal spending but later adopted deficit spending to avoid alienating middle-class and blue-collar workers. He imposed a 90-day wage and price freeze, took the dollar off the gold standard, and imposed a surtax on imports, which helped to boost U.S. competitiveness.
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