7.11 - Interwar Foreign Policy

Disarmament Efforts in the 1920s

• Washington Conference (1921): Initiated by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes, this conference led to significant naval disarmament and aimed to stabilize power in the Pacific. Key agreements included the Five-Power Treaty, Four-Power Treaty, and Nine-Power Treaty, which sought to maintain peace and respect territorial integrity, particularly in China.

• Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928): Led by U.S. Secretary of State Frank Kellogg and French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand, this pact, signed by multiple nations, aimed to renounce war as a means of national policy. It allowed defensive wars and lacked enforcement mechanisms, limiting its effectiveness.

Economic Plans and Policies

• Dawes Plan (1924): Negotiated by Charles Dawes, this plan facilitated a cycle of payments that helped Germany pay reparations to Allies, who in turn could pay their war debts to the U.S. This cycle collapsed after the 1929 stock market crash due to the cessation of U.S. loans.

Franklin Roosevelt’s Foreign Policy

• Good Neighbor Policy: Announced in 1933, this policy ended U.S. intervention in Latin American affairs, emphasizing cooperation and mutual respect. This approach was partly influenced by the economic limitations of the Great Depression and the rise of militarist regimes in Europe.

Rise of Fascism and Militarism

• Italy: Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime, established in 1922, promoted nationalism and an aggressive military stance. Fascism became a significant force in Europe, appealing to war veterans and those fearing communism.

• Germany: The Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, capitalized on economic misery and nationalistic resentment, gaining power in 1933. Hitler’s regime was marked by aggressive anti-Semitic policies and militaristic expansions.

• Japan: Increasing militarism led Japan to pursue territorial expansions into China and Southeast Asia, driven by the need for raw materials. This expansionism culminated in the Second Sino-Japanese War starting in 1937, including severe atrocities such as the Nanjing Massacre.

American Isolationism

• Public Sentiment: Post-World War I disillusionment supported strong isolationist sentiments within the U.S., particularly among Midwesterners and Republicans. This sentiment intensified with the rise of militaristic and fascist powers abroad, reinforcing the desire to avoid foreign entanglements.

Lessons from World War I and Neutrality Acts

• Senate Investigation: Led by Senator Gerald Nye, this committee concluded in 1934 that U.S. involvement in World War I was largely influenced by bankers and arms manufacturers, which fueled isolationist legislation.

• Neutrality Acts (1935-1937): Aimed to prevent U.S. involvement in foreign conflicts, these acts prohibited arms shipments, travel on belligerent ships, and financial transactions with warring nations, including specific bans related to the Spanish Civil War.

Roosevelt’s Foreign Policy Adjustments

• Quarantine Speech (1937): In response to Japan's invasion of China, Roosevelt suggested a collective quarantine of aggressor nations. The idea faced strong public opposition and was quickly abandoned.

• Preparedness and Military Buildup: Echoing Wilson’s approach before World War I, Roosevelt advocated for both neutrality and military preparedness, leading to significant increases in U.S. defense budgets by late 1938.

Outbreak of World War II

• Expansion of Nazi Germany: Hitler's occupation of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 demonstrated his broader ambitions, leading Britain and France to pledge support for Poland.

• Soviet-German Non Aggression Pact (1939): This unexpected agreement between Stalin and Hitler, which included plans to divide Poland, shocked the democratic nations and signaled the imminent start of broader conflict.

Shift in U.S. Policy as War Progressed

• Roosevelt’s Aid to Allies: Post-1939, Roosevelt began circumventing neutrality laws to provide substantial support to Britain, especially after the fall of France in 1940. This aid was crucial for British resistance against Nazi advances.

• “Cash and Carry” Policy (1939): Allowed belligerents to purchase U.S. arms with their own transport and funds, benefiting Britain due to its naval superiority.

• Selective Service Act (1940): Instituted the first peacetime draft in U.S. history, registering American men and preparing for potential involvement in the war, reflecting a shift away from strict neutrality.

The Election of 1940

• Third Term Decision: Amidst global instability, President Franklin Roosevelt decided to seek a third term, breaking the traditional two-term limit, based on the critical situation at the time. His decision was well-received by most Democrats, and he won re-election.

Key Policies and Speeches

• Arsenal of Democracy: In a fireside chat in December 1940, Roosevelt declared the U.S. the "arsenal of democracy," emphasizing the need to support democratic nations, particularly Britain, against Axis powers.

• Four Freedoms: In January 1941, Roosevelt articulated the importance of supporting nations that uphold key democratic principles—freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from want, and freedom from fear.

• Lend-Lease Act: This act, signed into law in March 1941, allowed Britain and eventually other Allies to purchase military supplies from the U.S. on credit, effectively ending the cash-and-carry requirement of previous neutrality acts.

Diplomatic and Military Preparations

• Atlantic Charter: In August 1941, Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met secretly and drafted the Atlantic Charter, outlining their vision for post-war peace, including self-determination and free trade.

• Shoot-on-Sight Order: Roosevelt authorized the U.S. Navy to protect Allied ships from German submarines, marking a significant escalation towards active involvement in the war.

Note: United States intervention, despite the neutrality acts, can be seen as inevitable. Roosevelt’s policies are supporting the Allies and he’s participating in post-war plan meetings despite being “neutral” and “uninvolved.”

Pearl Harbor and Entry into World War II

• Attack on Pearl Harbor: On December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, causing significant casualties and damage to the U.S. Pacific Fleet.

• U.S. Declaration of War: Following the attack, Roosevelt delivered his famous "Infamy Speech" to Congress, who declared war on Japan on December 8, 1941. Shortly after, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, marking America's full entry into World War II.