6.8 - Causation in the Imperial Age

Industrial Production: Increased automation, use of interchangeable parts, division of labor, and assembly lines led to more efficient production. This efficiency boosted the output of consumer goods like textiles, home furnishings, clothing, and porcelain.
Availability and Prices: As the supply of consumer goods rose, availability increased, and prices fell. Greater global industrial production led to more competition and a wider variety of goods.
Standard of Living: For some, the standard of living improved due to the increased availability of consumer goods. Economists often measure this by examining real wages (wages adjusted for inflation). Real wages grew slowly at first but accelerated after 1819, doubling by 1852. This growth paralleled a rise in consumption, indicating improved living standards for all income groups.
Wealth Gap: Despite the rise in income, the wealth gap became more pronounced. The benefits of increased income were often offset by industrialization’s downsides, such as pollution, crowded cities, and the costs of wars. For many, these issues may have negated any improvements in living standards.

Overproduction: As more countries industrialized, overproduction became a problem, as domestic markets couldn't absorb all the goods produced. This led to a shift from mercantilism to capitalism, with a focus on increasing exports.
Economic and Political Rivalries: Industrialized economies sought to expand their markets, leading to economic and political rivalries. Businesses turned to their governments to help open new markets.
Need for Resources: Industrial economies required more natural resources, such as coal, iron, tin, rubber, and copper, which were often imported from Africa, Southeast Asia, and Latin America. This need drove the expansion of imperialism in the 19th century.
Imperialism: Industrialized countries, particularly in Western Europe, the U.S., and Japan, benefited from controlling trade and resources globally. This was a continuation of earlier colonial practices, but on a larger scale.
Impact on Colonies: Dependent colonial economies, which provided raw materials and markets for the imperial powers, often saw little economic development. Their reliance on cash crops made them vulnerable to natural disasters and market fluctuations.
Domination by Western Powers: Technological advances from the Industrial Revolution, especially in military technology, shipbuilding, and medicine, allowed Western powers to dominate previously resistant regions like Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Even China fell under Western and Japanese influence.

Revolutions: The late 1700s and early 1800s saw several significant revolutions, including the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the independence movements in South America against Spanish and Portuguese rule.
Resistance to Western Imperialism: As Western imperialism spread, resistance and rebellion grew. For example, Indian soldiers (sepoys) rebelled against the British East India Company, leading to direct British rule in India (British Raj). In China, the Boxer Rebellion aimed to expel Western influence, especially from Christian missionaries.
Impact on Future Nationalism: These early independence movements set the stage for more widespread and successful nationalist movements after World War II.

Migration Patterns: Modern imperialism led to significant migration. People moved from rural to urban areas within countries and from less developed to more developed parts of Europe. Many Europeans emigrated to the U.S. and Canada in search of economic opportunities.
Indentured Laborers: Some migrants, especially from China, Japan, South Asia, and Europe, signed contracts to work in various regions, including the Americas, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Australia. These indentured laborers often formed enclaves with others from their home countries.
Discrimination: Immigrants frequently faced discrimination based on race, religion, or other factors. The spread of global capitalism enriched the middle and upper classes but left the working classes, already exploited, competing directly with immigrants for jobs.

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