8.4 - Spread of Communism

Communism in China

• Civil War and Japanese Invasion: The Communists and Nationalists in China started fighting for control in 1927. However, they paused their conflict to unite against the Japanese invasion during World War II.

• Communist Victory: After Japan’s defeat in 1945, the Chinese Civil War resumed. The Communists, led by Mao Zedong, gained support by redistributing land to peasants, opening schools and hospitals, and punishing soldiers who mistreated civilians. By 1949, the Communists defeated the Nationalists and established the People's Republic of China. Mao implemented Soviet-style five-year plans that focused on heavy industry over consumer goods.

• Great Leap Forward (1958): This policy involved more land reform, organizing peasant lands into large communes where the state owned the land. Those who opposed were sent to "reeducation camps" or killed. Despite severe food shortages due to poor harvests, China continued to export grain to other countries, leading to the starvation of around 20 million people. The Great Leap Forward was abandoned by 1960.

• Cultural Revolution (1966): Mao launched the Cultural Revolution to reinforce communism and strengthen his power. The Red Guards, groups of revolutionary students, were tasked with silencing critics by sending government officials, teachers, and others to the countryside for reeducation through hard labor. This period was marked by widespread persecution similar to Stalin’s purges in the Soviet Union.

• Relations with the Soviets: Despite both being communist states, China and the Soviet Union were often hostile towards each other. From 1961 onwards, they had border skirmishes and competed for global influence. Albania, a Soviet satellite, took advantage of this split to ally with China, gaining more autonomy and financial aid.

Turmoil in Iran

• Foreign Influence: In the late 19th century, Iran fell under foreign domination, with Britain and Russia vying for control. This rivalry intensified with the discovery of oil in Iran in the early 20th century. During World War II, Iran's leader considered supporting Nazi Germany, prompting Britain and Russia to invade Iran and force the leader to abdicate in favor of his son, Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi. They maintained military presence in Iran until the war's end.

• Nationalism and Overthrow: Iranian nationalists saw the shah as a puppet of Western powers. In 1951, they forced him to flee the country, and Mohammad Mosaddegh was elected as prime minister. Mosaddegh aimed to nationalize Iran’s oil industry. However, the U.S. and Britain orchestrated a coup in 1953, ousting Mosaddegh and reinstating the shah, who then ruled with an authoritarian regime backed by a ruthless secret police.

• White Revolution: Despite his harsh rule, the shah initiated reforms known as the White Revolution, which included women’s suffrage, a social welfare system, and literacy programs. The most significant reform involved land redistribution, where the government bought land from landlords and sold it to peasants at lower prices. Though it helped some peasants become landowners, the reform failed to benefit the majority. Many groups, including landowners, peasants, and religious conservatives, opposed the reforms.

• Iranian Revolution (1979): Growing discontent led to the overthrow of the shah in 1979. The new revolutionary leaders rejected the shah’s secular policies and established a theocracy, where religion was the supreme authority. The new government was headed by a cleric and a Guardian Council, who ensured that all laws complied with Islamic law (Shariah). The new regime opposed Western influence and the state of Israel.

Land Reform in Latin America

• Concentration of Land: Many Latin American leaders viewed the concentration of land ownership as a barrier to progress. After gaining independence from colonial powers, land reform became a significant focus.

• Mexico: Mexico's efforts in land reform date back to the 1910s, but much of the land reform in the region occurred in the 1960s and later.

• Venezuela:

  • Land Redistribution: In Venezuela, the government redistributed around five million acres of land. Some of this land was state-owned and previously uncultivated, while other portions were seized from large landowners.

  • 2001 Law: The land reform began with a 2001 law, which was unpopular among landowners who claimed their cultivated land was unjustly seized.

  • Challenges: Illegal squatters moved onto lands not intended for reform, creating additional issues. Politically, those who benefited from the reforms were more likely to support the government, while those who lost land opposed it.

  • Variation Across Countries: Land reform in Latin America differed by country, influenced by environmental factors, colonial history, and the ideologies of the ruling governments.

• Guatemala:

  • Arbenz Government: In Guatemala, the democratically elected government of Jacob Arbenz began land reform efforts.

  • United Fruit Company: The U.S.-based United Fruit Company felt threatened and lobbied the U.S. government to remove Arbenz.

  • 1954 Coup: In 1954, Arbenz was overthrown, and the land reform efforts were halted.

Land Reform in Asia and Africa

• Vietnam:

  • Post-WWII Independence: Vietnam declared independence from Japan and France in 1945.

  • Agricultural Society: A few landowners controlled most of the land, leading to widespread support for the Communists who promised land redistribution.

  • Communist Land Reform: In North Vietnam, the Communists carried out violent land reforms, while in South Vietnam, the slow implementation of land reform contributed to the government's unpopularity.

• Ethiopia:

  • Independence and Economic Success: Ethiopia, apart from a brief Italian occupation, remained independent and aligned with Western powers after WWII, experiencing economic success through coffee trade.

  • Failed Land Reforms: Emperor Haile Selassie struggled to implement effective land reforms, leading to growing discontent by the 1960s.

  • 1974 Coup: A group of military and civilian leaders, including Mengistu Haile Mariam, overthrew Selassie in 1974. The new government declared itself socialist, receiving aid from the Soviet Union, but faced famine, failed policies, and rebellion. Mengistu resigned and fled in 1991.

• India:

  • Independence and Partition: India gained independence from British rule in 1947 and was partitioned into Pakistan (Muslim-majority) and India (Hindu-majority).

  • Land Reform Efforts: India attempted to redistribute land, weaken the power of rent collectors, protect tenants, and promote cooperative farming. The results were mixed.

  • Kerala: In Kerala, a series of land reform policies had some success:

    • 1960: Land reforms were passed but later overturned by courts.

    • 1963: Tenants won the right to purchase land from landowners.

    • 1969: New laws allowed tenants to become full owners of land.

    • 1974: Laws were enacted to ensure fixed work hours and minimum wages.

  • Central Government Intervention: Despite the popularity of the reforms, the Indian central government took direct control of Kerala to slow down or reverse the program.