3.3 - Empires: Belief System

Protestant Reformation

• Challenges to the Roman Catholic Church: The Church faced significant challenges during the transition from feudalism to centralized governments in Europe. Corruption within the Church was widespread, leading to various councils and reform movements, but these efforts largely failed.

• Early Reformers:

  • John Wycliffe and the Lollards (Late 14th Century): Wycliffe argued that priests were unnecessary for salvation and translated parts of the Bible into English, making it accessible to the common people. He was vilified by the Church for his actions.

  • Jan Hus and the Hussites (Early 15th Century): Similar to Wycliffe, Hus was declared a heretic and burned at the stake for his beliefs.

  • Huldrych Zwingli (Early 16th Century): Zwingli campaigned in Geneva for a religion based strictly on scripture, opposing later customs like clerical celibacy.

• Babylonian Captivity (1309-1377): The period when the papacy was located in France, allowing French rulers to exert significant influence over the Church, including decisions on papal appointments. This weakened the Church’s authority in the eyes of many believers.

Lutheranism

• Martin Luther (1483-1546): A monk in Wittenberg, Luther challenged the Church’s practices, particularly the sale of indulgences and simony (selling church offices). In 1517, he nailed his 95 Theses to a church door, advocating for "sola fide" (faith alone) as the basis for salvation.

• Excommunication and Political Impact: Luther was excommunicated in 1521, but his ideas gained support among German political leaders seeking independence from papal authority. This led to a major split within the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire.

• Social Impact: Luther’s teachings promoted literacy among women, emphasizing their role in teaching children to read the Bible. However, Protestant women had fewer opportunities for leadership compared to Roman Catholic women, as Protestants did not establish convents.

Calvinism

• John Calvin (1509-1564): A French theologian who broke with the Catholic Church around 1530. Calvin’s teachings emphasized predestination and the concept of the "elect" who were predestined for salvation.

• Geneva’s Theocracy: Calvin reformed Geneva, creating a religious community governed by the elect. His followers in France were called Huguenots, while other offshoots included the Reformed Church of Scotland and the Puritans in England and Boston.

• Protestant Work Ethic: Calvinism’s emphasis on hard work and frugality, as described by sociologist Max Weber, contributed to the development of the Protestant work ethic, which viewed material success as a sign of divine favor.

Anglicanism

• Henry VIII (1491-1547): The King of England who established the Church of England after the pope refused to annul his marriage. This move was driven by Henry’s desire for a male heir and his need to free England from papal control.

The Orthodox Church and Reforms in Russia

• Peter the Great (1672-1725): Peter reasserted control over the Russian Orthodox Church by abolishing the position of patriarch and establishing the Holy Synod, a body of clergymen overseen by a secular official. This reform integrated the Church into the government, reinforcing Peter’s authority.

Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reformation

• Response to Protestantism: The Roman Catholic Church launched the Counter-Reformation to combat the spread of Protestantism. This involved a three-pronged strategy:

  • Inquisition: Increased use of the Inquisition to root out and punish non-believers, sometimes employing torture.

  • Jesuits: The Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1540, engaged in missionary work to spread Catholicism, particularly in the Spanish Empire, Japan, and India.

  • Council of Trent (1545-1563): Addressed Church abuses, reaffirmed Catholic rituals, improved the education of priests, and published the Index of Prohibited Books, banning works that opposed Catholic doctrine.

• Success of the Counter-Reformation: The Catholic Church remained dominant in Western Europe, particularly near the Mediterranean. Catholicism also spread to European colonies in the Americas and elsewhere, largely due to the influence of Spain, Portugal, and France.

Aftermath

• Charles V and Philip II: Charles V abdicated as Holy Roman Emperor in 1555, discouraged by his inability to stop the spread of Lutheranism. His son, Philip II, continued the Catholic crusade, ruling the Netherlands and attempting to conquer England. However, his efforts were thwarted by the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588.

Wars of Religion

• Religious Conflict in Europe: The Protestant Reformation led to a series of religious wars across Europe, as different factions vied for power and influence.

• Schmalkaldic Wars (1546-1547): The forces of Charles V fought against the German Lutheran Schmalkaldic League. The conflict ended with the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, allowing each German state to choose whether its ruler would be Catholic or Lutheran. This peace treaty forced inhabitants to practice the state religion, but allowed those who disagreed to move to a state that aligned with their beliefs.

• France:

  • Religious Wars (16th Century): Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants) fought for nearly 50 years. King Henry IV, originally a Protestant, converted to Catholicism in 1593, reportedly stating, "Paris is well worth a Mass," to unify the country.

  • Edict of Nantes (1598): Henry IV issued this edict to grant religious tolerance to Huguenots, providing peace in France for 87 years. However, in 1685, Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, leading to social and economic consequences as many skilled Huguenots fled France.

• Thirty Years' War (1618-1648):

  • Cause: Initially a religious conflict within the Holy Roman Empire, it evolved into a broader European conflict involving major powers.

  • Impact: The war caused widespread devastation, famine, and disease, as troops looted and destroyed lands across Europe.

  • Peace of Westphalia (1648): This treaty ended the war, allowing each region of the Holy Roman Empire to choose between Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Calvinism. The treaty also increased the autonomy of various states, particularly Prussia and Austria, laying the groundwork for future European political developments.

Islamic Religious Schisms and Toleration

• Ottoman Empire: Following the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the region transitioned from Eastern Orthodox Christianity to Islam under Ottoman rule. The Ottoman Empire adopted Shariah law, a strict Islamic legal system governing all aspects of life.

• Safavid Empire: Shah Ismail established Shi'a Islam as the unifying force in the Safavid Empire, denying legitimacy to Sunni Muslims. This strict adherence to Shi'a Islam led to frequent hostilities with the Sunni-dominated Ottoman Empire.

• Mughal Empire under Akbar:

  • Religious Tolerance: Akbar, one of the most notable Mughal rulers, promoted religious tolerance and supported various religions, including Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, and Sikhism. He abolished the poll tax on non-Muslims and appointed Hindus to significant government positions.

  • Cultural Flourishing: Akbar encouraged learning, art, architecture, and literature, although his attempts to create a syncretic religion, Din-i Ilahi, to reconcile Hinduism and Islam, were unsuccessful.

Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment

• Scientific Thinking Emerges: During the early 1600s, scientific thought began to gain traction in Northern Europe, challenging traditional religious views.

• Francis Bacon and Empiricism: In 1620, Francis Bacon developed empiricism, an early scientific method that emphasized the collection of data to support hypotheses. This method challenged long-held beliefs and laid the foundation for modern scientific inquiry.

• Advancements in Science: Despite the ongoing religious wars, scientific thinking advanced through the correspondence of scholars and the establishment of scientific academies, such as the Royal Academy of Science in France and England.

• Isaac Newton's Principia (1687): Newton combined previous scientific discoveries to formulate the laws of gravitational force. His work influenced science, mathematics, and the broader intellectual movement that would become the Enlightenment, which emphasized reason and rationality in understanding the world and governing society.