6.7 - Ideologies of Change and Reform Movements

Political Ideologies of the 19th Century

Introduction:

• The 19th century in Europe was marked by significant social and political disruptions due to the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution, and the suppression of nationalist revolts during the conservative age of Metternich.

• As traditional structures were challenged, new political ideologies emerged, each advocating for change in response to the shifting social and political landscape.

Liberalism

Origins and Principles:

• Liberalism is rooted in Enlightenment ideas, emphasizing the rights of the individual and the concept of popular sovereignty—the belief that the power to govern lies with the people.

• Classical liberalism advocates for limited government, individual natural rights, and enlightened self-interest, where individuals act in ways that benefit both themselves and society.

Key Figures:

• Jeremy Bentham: Developed utilitarianism, which posits that actions should be judged based on their ability to increase the happiness of those affected. This idea was a departure from Christian morality, which defined right and wrong based on religious teachings.

• John Stuart Mill: A disciple of Bentham, Mill expanded on utilitarianism, emphasizing the importance of considering the happiness of society as a whole. He also advocated for women's rights in his book The Subjection of Women.

Challenges and Movements:

• Liberalism in the 19th century often catered to the elite class, who argued that fundamental rights, such as voting, should be limited to landowners.

• In response, movements like Chartism in England demanded universal male suffrage and full citizenship regardless of wealth, title, or property ownership. While the Chartist movement eventually fizzled out, many of its goals were later achieved.

Women's Rights:

• While many liberals excluded women from their reforms, John Stuart Mill and Flora Tristan in France were exceptions. They advocated for women's suffrage, property rights, and the right to work in professional careers.

Socialism

Definition and Context:

• Socialism emerged as a response to the inequalities exacerbated by the Industrial Revolution. It called for the collective ownership of the means of production and the redistribution of wealth to benefit the community as a whole.

Types of Socialism:

• Utopian Socialism:

  • Henri de Saint-Simon: Proposed that society should be led by the workers rather than the "parasites" (aristocracy and the church). His ideas, though grand, were largely impractical and never fully implemented.

  • Charles Fourier and Robert Owen: Disciples of Saint-Simon, they created intentional communities that implemented shared property, eight-hour workdays, and free education. Despite some success, the movement did not gain widespread traction.

• Scientific Socialism:

  • Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Developed scientific socialism based on a rigorous analysis of capitalism. They argued that history is driven by class struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers). Marx predicted that the proletariat would eventually rise up, overthrow the bourgeoisie, and end class struggle.

  • Women in Marxism: Some women became prominent Marxist leaders, such as Clara Zetkin in Germany and Rosa Luxemburg in Poland, who fought for workers' rights and women's equality.

Anarchism

Definition and Key Figures:

• Anarchism is the belief that all forms of government authority are unnecessary and should be replaced with a society based on voluntary cooperation.

• Mikhail Bakunin (Russia): Argued that secret societies should lead revolutionary movements to overthrow the state and establish self-governing communities.

• Georges Sorel (France): Advocated for syndicalism, the idea that labor unions (syndicates) should take control of property after the overthrow of governing authorities.