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Calvinism in France and the French Wars of Religion
Calvinists in France:
Known as Huguenots, Calvinists gained significant influence within the French nobility, with nearly half of the French nobility becoming Huguenots.
This shift led to tensions as the Huguenots began demanding recognition and rights within predominantly Catholic France.
Reign of Charles IX:
Charles IX ascended to the throne at the age of 11, with his mother, Catherine de' Medici, ruling as regent until he came of age.
Catherine, a devout Catholic, saw the Huguenots as a threat to her power and the stability of France.
The French Wars of Religion:
Began in 1562 with the Massacre of Vassy:
A group of Huguenots was attacked during a worship service by the orders of a Catholic Duke from the Guise family.
Although the Huguenots were not strong enough to take control of France, they fought defensively and maintained their position for the next 10 years.
St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572):
A significant event orchestrated by Catherine de' Medici:
Despite the apparent resolution of religious tensions through the marriage of Charles IX’s Catholic sister to the Calvinist Henry of Navarre, the tensions escalated, leading to this brutal massacre of Huguenots.
Henry of Navarre and the French Wars of Religion
Henry of Navarre:
Leader of the Huguenots and a central figure in the French Wars of Religion.
St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572):
Many Huguenots gathered in Paris for Henry’s wedding, a decision that proved disastrous.
The Guise family, responsible for the earlier Massacre of Vassy, convinced Catherine de' Medici that the Huguenots were a threat to Catholic France.
Under her influence, Charles IX ordered the mass killing of Huguenots, leading to a three-day killing spree where thousands of Huguenots were slaughtered in Paris.
Henry's Conversions:
To save his life during the massacre, Henry of Navarre promised to convert to Catholicism.
Later, he re-converted to Calvinism, preparing for the next phase of the religious conflict known as the War of the Three Henrys.
War of the Three Henrys (1574-1589):
A conflict involving three Henrys vying for the French throne:
Henry III (the reigning king after succeeding Charles IX).
Henry of Guise, leader of the ultra-Catholic Holy League, who sought to take the throne with the support of Spain.
Henry of Navarre, the Huguenot leader.
Henry of Guise briefly took control of the French throne with Spanish support, reducing Henry III to a mere figurehead.
In response, Henry III had Henry of Guise assassinated and allied with Henry of Navarre to defeat the Holy League and reclaim Paris.
In 1589, Henry III was assassinated by a disgruntled monk, leaving Henry of Navarre as the legitimate heir to the French throne.
Henry IV and the Edict of Nantes (1598):
Henry of Navarre converted back to Catholicism, understanding that a Calvinist king would not be popular in France.
He ascended to the throne as Henry IV in 1594, marking the end of the French Wars of Religion.
One of his major achievements was the Edict of Nantes (1598):
Officially established France as a Catholic state.
Granted Huguenots the freedom to worship without fear of persecution or harassment, moving France towards religious toleration.
The Habsburgs and the Catholic Struggle
The Habsburg Dynasty:
The Habsburgs were a powerful ruling family in Europe, with a strong commitment to Catholicism.
Philip II of Spain, a prominent Habsburg ruler, came to power in 1556 and sought to defend and expand Catholicism across Europe.
Conflict with the Ottoman Empire:
In 1453, the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople, marking the fall of the Byzantine Empire.
The Ottomans then aimed to expand further into central and eastern Europe.
Spain, Poland, and Lorraine allied to repel the Ottoman forces, effectively halting their expansion into Europe.
Philip II's Crusade Against Protestantism:
Philip II was deeply troubled by the division of Christianity in Europe, particularly the rise of Protestantism.
He aimed to restore Catholic unity and targeted regions where Protestant influence was growing, such as the Netherlands and England.
The Netherlands and the Dutch Revolt:
The Netherlands saw a rise in Calvinism, especially among the middle class.
Philip's father, Charles V, had been relatively tolerant of the Calvinists, allowing them some freedoms.
However, when Dutch Calvinists began engaging in iconoclasm (the destruction of Catholic religious images), Philip II responded with severe persecution.
This led to the Dutch Revolt, with William of Orange emerging as the leader of the Dutch Calvinists. In 1581, the Netherlands declared independence from Spanish rule.
Conflict with England:
Elizabeth I of England, a Protestant, supported the Dutch revolt against Spanish rule.
This, combined with English interference with Spanish merchant ships, provoked Philip II.
In response, Philip sent the Spanish Armada to invade England, aiming to suppress Protestant influence and restore Catholic dominance.
The Spanish Armada and the Protestant-Catholic Conflicts
The Spanish Armada (1588):
Philip II of Spain sent the Spanish Armada to invade England, intending to suppress Protestant influence and restore Catholicism.
Outcome:
The English navy defeated the Spanish Armada in a decisive battle.
This victory, combined with the success of the Dutch Protestant rebellion, marked a significant setback for Catholic Spain and allowed Protestantism to gain a stronger foothold in Europe.
The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648):
The last major religious conflict of the era, considered one of the most significant.
Background - Peace of Augsburg (1555):
Granted princes in the Holy Roman Empire the right to choose the religion of their territories, either Catholicism or Lutheranism.
However, this did not account for Calvinism, which was gaining influence in the Holy Roman Empire, leading to tensions.
Trigger - The Defenestration of Prague (1618):
When Catholic Ferdinand became king of the largely Calvinist region of Bohemia, he began re-Catholicizing the area.
In protest, Calvinist nobility threw two of Ferdinand’s messengers out of a window—a symbolic act known as the Defenestration of Prague.
The messengers survived, leading to differing interpretations: Catholics attributed their survival to the Virgin Mary, while Protestants pointed to a large pile of manure that broke their fall.
Phases of the Thirty Years' War
Bohemian Phase (1618-1625):
Key Figures:
Catholic Ferdinand II: Holy Roman Emperor who aimed to restore Catholic dominance.
Frederick V: Leader of the Protestant forces.
Battle of White Mountain (1620):
Ferdinand II's Catholic forces defeated the Protestant forces led by Frederick V.
Result:
Catholics regained control and re-established Catholicism across many regions of the Holy Roman Empire.
Danish Phase (1625-1629):
Key Figure:
King Christian IV of Denmark: Took up the Protestant cause, motivated by his alliance with anti-Catholic and anti-Habsburg forces, including England.
Outcome:
Despite support from Protestant allies, the Catholic forces won this phase, continuing their dominance in the war.
Swedish Phase (1630-1635):
Key Figure:
King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden: A military genius who organized the Protestant cause and led them to significant victories.
French Involvement:
France, though Catholic, financially supported the Protestants to weaken the Habsburgs, showcasing a shift from religious to political motivations in the conflict.
French Phase (1635-1648):
France's Role:
France formally entered the war on the side of the Protestants, primarily fighting against Spain to ensure the Habsburgs could not recover their power.
Conclusion - Peace of Westphalia (1648):
End of Religious Wars: The treaty marked the end of the religious wars in Europe.
Amendment to the Peace of Augsburg: Calvinism was recognized as a legitimate faith within the Holy Roman Empire.
Decline of Universal Christendom: The further splintering of Protestantism marked the end of the medieval idea of a universal Christendom.
Weakening of the Holy Roman Empire: The treaty kept the Holy Roman Empire weak while empowering the rulers of individual states, accelerating the empire's decline.
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