6.6 - Causes of Migration in an Interconnected World

Migration through Labor Systems in the 19th Century

The Shift from Slavery to New Labor Forms:

• As the 19th century progressed, the demand for low-wage labor grew, even as slavery was gradually abolished in imperial territories. The need for agricultural goods, which had been produced by enslaved labor, persisted. To meet this demand, European states began recruiting new laborers to work on plantations and in other industries. These labor systems were central to economic imperialism, driving wealth that fueled industrial growth in the imperial powers.

Key Labor Migrations:

• Indian Laborers:

  • Migrated to British colonies in the Caribbean, South Africa, East Africa, and Fiji.

• Chinese Laborers:

  • Migrated to California and British Malaya to work on railroads, as farmhands, gardeners, and domestics.

• Japanese Laborers:

  • Migrated to Hawaii, Peru, and Cuba to work on sugar plantations.

Slavery:

• Abolition Movement:

  • Most countries in the Americas abolished the African slave trade in the early 19th century. While slavery continued in some areas, without new enslaved individuals, the institution began to decline. However, in the United States, the number of enslaved people continued to grow until the abolition of slavery in 1865.

• Continued Enslavement in Africa:

  • Even as slavery was abolished in many parts of the world, Africans continued enslaving each other well into the 20th century. As demand for labor persisted, imperial powers turned to other forms of coerced labor.

Indentured Servitude:

• Economic Opportunities:

  • Indentured servitude involved people working for a set number of years before becoming free. Many entered into these agreements to escape poverty or to pay off debts. This system allowed individuals to migrate from poor communities to places with more opportunities.

• Cultural Impact:

  • Indentured laborers often stayed in their new countries, bringing their home cultures with them and significantly altering the demographics and cultures of regions such as Mauritius, Fiji, and Trinidad.

Asian Contract Laborers:

• Forced Labor:

  • Asian contract laborers, primarily from China and India, were often forced or tricked into servitude as a substitute for slave labor. This system became prominent after Britain ended the slave trade in 1806.

• Exploitation and Abolition:

  • These laborers faced harsh conditions and low wages, and their treatment was heavily criticized as a form of slavery. By the late 19th century, international pressure led to the abolition of this system, with treaties ending the contracts of Chinese workers still in places like Cuba.

British and French Penal Colonies:

• British Penal Colonies:

  • After losing its American colonies, Britain established a penal colony in Australia. Convicts from across the British Empire were sent to Australia, where they performed hard labor and often stayed after completing their sentences. This penal system was abolished by 1850, and Australia became a successful settler colony, especially after the gold rush of 1851.

• French Penal Colonies:

  • France also established penal colonies in Africa, New Caledonia, and French Guiana. These colonies were notorious for their harsh conditions and forced labor. Notably, Devil’s Island in French Guiana continued to hold prisoners until 1953.

Diasporas and Migration:

• India:

  • Driven by poverty, many Indians migrated as indentured laborers to British and French colonies worldwide. By the time the indenture system ended in 1916, over 1.5 million Indians had been sent to various colonies.

• China:

  • The Chinese diaspora began in earnest during the mid-19th century, with many emigrating to Southeast Asia, the Americas, and other parts of the world. Factors such as poverty, political instability, and the Taiping Rebellion fueled this migration.

• Ireland:

  • Irish migration was driven by political oppression, religious discrimination, and economic hardship, particularly during the Great Famine of 1845-1849. Millions of Irish emigrated to the United States, Great Britain, and other parts of the world.

• Italy:

  • The Italian diaspora began with the unification of Italy in 1861 and was primarily driven by poverty. Millions of Italians migrated to Europe, the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand, seeking better economic opportunities.

Migration to Settler Colonies and Beyond

British Migration to Settler Colonies:

• Settler Colonies: Many British citizens migrated to settler colonies like Canada, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand, where they sought to build new lives. Others went to colonies like India, Malaya, or Kenya, usually without plans to stay permanently, often serving as army officers, government officials, or plantation managers.

• Technical Experts: Engineers, geologists, and other experts migrated to British colonies, spreading Western science and technology globally. Andrew Geddes Bain, who emigrated to South Africa, significantly contributed to the country's infrastructure and geological studies. British engineers formed a diaspora, collaborating with local experts on public and private projects.

Argentina and British Influence:

• British Investment: In the 19th century, Argentina became part of Britain’s “informal” empire, with British investments in Argentina exceeding those in India. British settlers in Argentina, primarily businessmen, traders, bankers, and engineers, played a crucial role in developing the country’s infrastructure, especially in railroads and agriculture.

Japanese Migration and the Colonization Society:

• Japanese Expansion: Before 1868, Japan was largely closed to the outside world. By the late 19th century, Japan sought to establish an overseas empire, creating the Colonization Society to export surplus population and goods. Despite a failed attempt to establish a colony in Mexico, Japan continued sending migrants abroad, including 790 Japanese workers to Peru in 1899.

• Migration to the U.S.: Many young Japanese men migrated to the U.S. to study, settling primarily on the West Coast. Anti-immigrant sentiment led to the 1907 Gentlemen’s Agreement, limiting Japanese immigration. This agreement was later nullified by the 1924 Immigration Act.

Impact of Migration on Urbanization:

• Transportation and Urbanization: Improved transportation allowed many migrants to return home temporarily or permanently. For example, Japanese laborers in Hawaii often returned to Japan after fulfilling three-year contracts. Similarly, Italian workers migrated to Argentina with plans to return home but many settled permanently.

• Urban Growth: Industrialization and migration fueled rapid urbanization, as internal and external migrants settled in cities, transforming the social and economic landscapes of both sending and receiving countries.