8.7 - Global Resistance to Established Order

Global Movements: In the 20th century, nonviolent movements successfully brought political change, led by figures like Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., and Nelson Mandela.
Gandhi: Led nonviolent protests against British rule in India, leading to independence in 1947.
Martin Luther King Jr.: Led the U.S. civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s through court cases, boycotts, and marches, resulting in the Civil Rights Act of 1965.
Nelson Mandela: Fought apartheid in South Africa, leading nonviolent resistance against racial segregation.

Poland (1956): Polish workers protested Soviet control, leading to reforms and the end of forced collectivization, but Poland remained loyal to the Soviet Union.
Hungary (1956): Hungary declared independence and withdrew from the Warsaw Pact, but Soviet forces invaded, crushed the movement, and executed leader Imre Nagy.
Czechoslovakia (1968): The Prague Spring increased freedoms, but Soviet forces crushed the movement under the Brezhnev Doctrine, fearing independence.

Global Protests: 1968 saw widespread protests: students in Yugoslavia, religious protests in Poland and Northern Ireland, and anti-war demonstrations in Japan.
Student Movement: Post-WWII, student unrest grew due to overcrowded universities and broader issues like civil rights and the Vietnam War.
France: Massive student protests in Paris escalated to the largest general strike in French history, leading President de Gaulle to call new elections.
United States: U.S. protests focused on civil rights and the Vietnam War, with intense opposition after the Kent State shootings in 1970.

Post-Cold War Period: Large-scale conflicts between states were rare; instead, terrorism by non-state actors became common in Western Europe, South America, the Islamic world, and the U.S.
Northern Ireland Conflict: After most of Ireland gained independence in 1922, Northern Ireland, with a Protestant majority, remained part of the U.K. The conflict between Catholics (IRA) and Protestants (Ulster Defence Association) became violent in the 1960s, resulting in 3,500 deaths. The IRA later renounced violence and pursued political goals.
Separatists in Spain: The Basque group ETA, founded in 1959, sought independence from Spain. ETA's actions led to over 800 deaths. In 2011, ETA ended its violent campaign and committed to political methods.
Peru’s Shining Path: Led by Abimael Guzmán, the Shining Path began a campaign of bombings and assassinations in 1980, aiming to establish a communist state. The violence led to around 37,000 deaths. Guzmán was arrested in 1992, but the group continued attacks until the late 1990s.
Islamic Terrorism: Groups like Boko Haram, al-Shabaab, ISIL, and the Taliban used a radical interpretation of Islam to justify terrorism. Al-Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden, was responsible for the 9/11 attacks in 2001, killing over 3,000 people. Al-Qaeda was severely weakened after bin Laden was killed in 2011.
Terrorism in the U.S.: Besides 9/11, domestic terrorism occurred, including the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing by anti-government extremists, killing 168 people.

Franco’s Spain: Francisco Franco ruled Spain from 1939 to 1975, executing and imprisoning many political opponents. Despite his authoritarian rule, Spain transitioned to democracy after his death.
Idi Amin’s Uganda: Idi Amin ruled Uganda from 1971 to 1979, known for extreme brutality and ethnic cleansing, resulting in up to 500,000 deaths. Amin was overthrown by Ugandan nationalists and Tanzanian forces, leading to his exile.

Global Arms Race: Fear and economic pressure led countries, especially the U.S. and Soviet Union, to build large militaries, supported by an expanded defense industry. President Eisenhower warned that the military-industrial complex could become powerful enough to threaten democracy.

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