5.8 - Military Conflict in the Civil War

Differences

• Military Differences: The Confederacy had the initial advantage of fighting a defensive war and managing shorter supply lines. It also boasted experienced military leaders and high troop morale. In contrast, the Union, with a larger population (22 million compared to the Confederacy's 5.5 million) and a substantial Navy, was better positioned for a prolonged conflict, eventually gaining control of key rivers and territorial waters.

• Economic Differences: The Union dominated economically, controlling the majority of the nation's banks, factories, railroads, and farmland. This economic strength provided substantial logistical support for Union military efforts. The Confederacy relied on cotton exports and hoped for European support that never fully materialized, leaving it economically disadvantaged.

• Political Differences: The Confederacy fought for independence based on states' rights, which paradoxically weakened its central government’s ability to conduct the war effectively. The Union, with an established central government, aimed to preserve the nation. Internal divisions within the Confederacy further hampered its war efforts, as some states resisted centralized control, complicating military coordination and resource allocation.

The Confederate States of America

• Constitution and Leadership: Led by President Jefferson Davis, the Confederate constitution mirrored the U.S. version but limited central economic powers and banned international slave trade. Davis struggled to consolidate power as states prioritized their interests, undermining collective war efforts. Financially, the Confederacy faced severe inflation due to overreliance on printed money, and despite attempts to stabilize the economy through nationalizing railroads and other measures, it could not match the Union's industrial and logistical capacity.

Union Military Strategy

• Anaconda Plan: Devised by General Winfield Scott, the plan aimed to suffocate the Confederacy economically by blockading Southern ports and controlling the Mississippi River, effectively splitting the Confederacy in two and restricting its vital supply lines.

• Conquer Richmond: The final aspect of the strategy involved raising a large Union army to capture Richmond, the Confederate capital, a goal that proved challenging and prolonged the war.

Early Battles: First and Second Bull Run, Peninsula Campaign

• First Battle of Bull Run: The first major battle of the Civil War demonstrated the unpreparedness of Union forces and dispelled any notions of a short war, showing the Confederacy's strong resistance.

• Peninsula Campaign: A prolonged and ultimately unsuccessful attempt by Union General George B. McClellan to capture Richmond, thwarted by Confederate General Robert E. Lee's superior tactics, leading to McClellan's dismissal.

Battle of Antietam (1862)

• Strategic Context: Following Confederate victories, General Robert E. Lee moved into Maryland, aiming for a victory on Union soil to secure foreign recognition and support. However, the battle ended inconclusively with heavy casualties.

• Impact: Antietam proved pivotal as it halted Lee's advance and provided President Lincoln the opportunity he needed to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, fundamentally shifting the war’s focus to the abolition of slavery and deterring foreign powers from supporting the Confederacy.

Battle of Fredericksburg (December 1862):

• Significance: Under General Ambrose Burnside, the Union forces suffered a devastating defeat with significant casualties, showing the high human cost of the war and the challenges of attacking entrenched positions.

Monitor vs. Merrimac (March 1862):

• Naval Innovation: This battle between the Union's Monitor and the Confederacy's Merrimac represented the first clash of ironclad ships, marking a turning point in naval warfare. The engagement ensured that wooden warships were obsolete and demonstrated the importance of technological advancements in maintaining naval blockades.

Ulysses S. Grant's Campaigns in the West:

• Strategic Victories: Grant's early successes at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson significantly boosted Union morale and control over strategic locations along the Mississippi River, showcasing his effective military leadership.

Trent Affair (Late 1861):

• International Crisis: The capture of Confederate diplomats from a British ship by the Union Navy nearly brought Britain into the war on the side of the Confederacy. The incident was resolved when Lincoln released the diplomats, avoiding further escalation.

Confederate Raiders:

• Maritime Impact: Confederate commerce-raiders, such as the CSS Alabama built in British shipyards, posed significant threats to Union merchant shipping, leading to international disputes that were later settled with British compensation to the U.S.

Failure of Cotton Diplomacy:

• Economic Miscalculation: The Confederate reliance on cotton to secure European support failed as alternative sources from Egypt and India supplied Britain. The lack of a decisive Confederate military victory and the Union’s Emancipation Proclamation, which garnered sympathy in Britain, further diminished the chances of European intervention.

Turning Point: Vicksburg and Gettysburg

Vicksburg (July 4, 1863):

• Strategic Victory: General Grant's successful siege of Vicksburg secured complete Union control of the Mississippi River, effectively severing the Confederacy and marking a crucial turning point in the war.

Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863):

• Pivotal Battle: The battle was the largest of the war and ended with significant Confederate losses. Lee's failed Pickett's Charge marked the last major Confederate offensive in the North, shifting the momentum firmly in favor of the Union.

Grant in Command

• Leadership Change: President Lincoln appointed Ulysses S. Grant as the commander of all Union armies in 1864 due to his decisive and aggressive approach to warfare.

• Strategy of Attrition: Grant implemented a strategy aimed at depleting Confederate resources and manpower through continuous engagement and pressure, contributing significantly to the eventual Union victory.

Sherman’s March to the Sea

• Total War Tactics: In late 1864, General William T. Sherman conducted a destructive campaign from Atlanta to Savannah, employing scorched earth tactics to undermine Confederate morale and capability.

• Psychological and Physical Impact: Sherman’s march was highly effective, devastating Georgia’s infrastructure and resources, and significantly weakening the Confederate war effort.

Surrender at Appomattox Court House (April 9, 1865)

• End of Conflict: Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House, effectively ending the Civil War.

• Terms of Surrender: Grant offered generous terms, allowing Confederate soldiers to return home with their personal belongings and horses, supporting a spirit of reconciliation.