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Causes of Expanded Exchange in the Indian Ocean
South Asia, strategically located in the center of the Indian Ocean, greatly benefited from the region's trade. While some causes of expanded trade in the Indian Ocean Basin were similar to those of overland routes, others were specific to ocean travel and knowledge.
Spread of Islam
Historical Context: Indian Ocean trade existed as early as 200 B.C.E., but the expansion of Islam in the 7th century connected more cities than ever before.
Role of Muslim Merchants: Muslim Persians and Arabs were dominant seafarers, crucial in transporting goods across the Indian Ocean. Cities like Calicut and Cambay on India's west coast flourished due to interactions with merchants from East Africa and Southwest Asia.
Increased Demand for Specialized Products
India: Known for high-quality fabrics (especially cotton), carpets, high-carbon steel, tanned leather, artisan-crafted stonework, and pepper from southern coastal cities.
Southeast Asia (Malaysia and Indonesia): Known as the Spice Islands for exporting nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, and cardamom.
Swahili Coast: Exported enslaved people, ivory, and gold.
China: Exported silk and porcelain.
Southwest Asia: Exported horses, figs, and dates.
Trade in Enslaved People
Routes and Destinations: Enslaved people from eastern Africa were sold to buyers in northern Africa, the Middle East, and India, and many were transported to islands off the southeast coast of Africa.
Conditions and Roles: Enslaved individuals in the Indian Ocean trade often worked in seaports, as household servants, sailors, or soldiers, and had more opportunities to integrate into local communities compared to those in the Atlantic slave trade.
Environmental Knowledge
Monsoon Winds: Essential for Indian Ocean trade, with winter winds coming from the northeast and spring/summer winds from the southwest. Merchants timed their voyages accordingly, often staying in port cities for months.
Advances in Maritime Technology
Triangular Lateen Sails: Popular among Arab sailors for their ability to catch winds from different directions.
Stern Rudder: Invented by Chinese sailors, providing ships with more stability and ease of maneuverability.
Astrolabe: Improved by Muslim navigators, it helped sailors determine their latitude.
Growth of States
Economic Impact: Trade networks led to the growth of states that institutionalized revenue from trade. For example, Malacca became wealthy by imposing fees on ships passing through the Strait of Malacca.
Political Influence: The sultanate of Malacca expanded significantly in the 1400s but ended when the Portuguese invaded in 1511, aiming to control trade routes between Europe, India, and China.
Diasporic Communities
Cultural Exchange: Merchants waiting for favorable winds often settled in distant lands, leading to the establishment of diasporic communities where cultural traditions were exchanged and merged.
Examples: Arab and East African merchants settled in western Indian port cities, bringing Islam to southern Asia through intermarriage rather than conquest or missionary work.
Response to Increased Demand
Efficiency and Production: To meet rising demand, producers had to increase efficiency, leading to state involvement in overseeing production and raising revenue through customs and seaport fees.
Impact on Regions: For example, Gujarat in western India became a key intermediary for trade between the East and West, with revenue from customs surpassing the worth of some European states.
Swahili City-States
Trade Centers: Thriving city-states along the east coast of Africa, such as Kilwa, Mombasa, and Zanzibar, traded ivory, gold, enslaved people, tortoise shells, peacock feathers, and rhinoceros horns.
Cultural Exchange: Acquired Chinese porcelain, Indian cotton, and manufactured ironwork. Chinese porcelain remains a common find in Swahili cities' ruins, indicating robust trade.
Significant Cultural Transfers
Impact of Voyages: The voyages of Muslim admiral Zheng He (1371–1433) exemplify the transfer of knowledge, culture, technology, commerce, and religion.
Zheng He’s Expeditions: Conducted seven voyages to regions including Indonesia, Arabia, and the east coast of Africa, displaying the Ming Dynasty's might and expanding Chinese influence.
Controversies and Legacy: While the voyages opened new markets and curbed pirate activities, they faced criticism from Confucian scholars who viewed foreign interaction as a threat to social order. After Zheng He’s voyages, China’s maritime activities diminished, but the temporary suppression of piracy had a lasting impact.
Trans-Saharan Trade
The Sahara Desert, spanning 3.6 million square miles, is nearly as large as China. Despite its vastness, only about 800 square miles consist of oases, which allow human settlement due to the availability of water from deep underground.
Camels, Saddles, and Trade
Introduction of Camels: Muslim merchants from Southwest Asia used camels to cross the Sahara. Native to Arabia, camels adapted well to the harsh Sahara conditions.
Camel Saddles: Developed by different groups, the Somali saddle, capable of carrying loads up to 600 pounds, had the greatest impact on trade.
Comparative Analysis of Pack Animals
Camels: Ideal for desert travel, carrying up to 600 pounds, but require high salt intake and can be aggressive.
Oxen: High stamina and able to pull heavy loads but move slowly and need more water and food.
Horses: Fast and versatile but require grain, spook easily, and struggle in high heat.
Llamas: Adapt well to mountainous climates and require little water but can carry less weight and do not tolerate heat well.
Caravans and Trade Routes
Caravan Composition: Caravans often included thousands of camels carrying goods and provisions, with people leading them on foot.
Trade Routes: Seven main north-south routes and two east-west routes connected Sub-Saharan Africa with various cultures and trading partners.
Expansion and Wealth of West African Empires
Ghana and Mali: Ghana weakened by the 12th century, leading to the rise of Mali. Mali profited from gold trade and taxed other trade, becoming wealthier than Ghana.
Timbuktu and Gao: Developed into centers of Muslim life and learning. Timbuktu became renowned for its Islamic education.
Notable Rulers and Their Contributions
Sundiata: Mali’s founding ruler, known as the Lion Prince, established trade relationships with North African and Arab merchants.
Mansa Musa: Grand-nephew of Sundiata, known for his pilgrimage to Mecca, which displayed Mali's wealth. He established religious schools, built mosques, and deepened the support for Islam in Mali.
Decline and Legacy
Mali’s Decline: After Mansa Musa's death, Mali declined by the late 1400s, with the Songhai Kingdom rising to power. Despite this, Islam maintained a significant presence in West Africa.
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