7.6 - World War I: Home Front

U.S. Mobilization for World War I

Mobilization Overview: As World War I escalated, the U.S. rapidly mobilized its resources to support the war effort. The government established several agencies to regulate industries and resources, ensuring efficient contribution to the war.

Herbert Hoover and Food Administration: Herbert Hoover led the Food Administration, promoting voluntary conservation among American households. Efforts to conserve food proved successful, significantly increasing food shipments to the Allies.

Railroad Administration: Under Secretary William McAdoo, the Railroad Administration took control of the railroads to ensure efficient transport of troops and materials, standardizing railroad equipment and traffic.

National War Labor Board: This board, led by former President William Howard Taft, resolved labor disputes and improved conditions for workers, leading to higher wages, shorter workdays, and increased union membership.

Public Opinion Management: The U.S. government actively managed public opinion through propaganda, ensuring widespread support for the war effort. This was spearheaded by the Committee on Public Information, which utilized media to support national unity and vigilance against perceived enemies.

Finance During Wilson's Administration:

• Raising Funds: To finance World War I, Wilson's administration raised $33 billion over two years.

• Liberty Bonds:

  • The government launched four massive drives to promote Liberty Bonds, encouraging Americans to invest their savings in support of the war effort.

  • Liberty Bonds were government-issued bonds that provided citizens with a secure investment while simultaneously funding military operations.

Civil Liberties During WWI

Espionage and Sedition Acts:

• The Espionage Act of 1917 was enacted to prohibit interference with military operations or recruitment, to prevent insubordination in the military, and to prevent the support of U.S. enemies during wartime. It imposed harsh penalties for acts of espionage and for the refusal to perform military duties.

• The Sedition Act of 1918 expanded the scope of the Espionage Act to cover a broader range of offenses, notably speech and the expression of opinions that cast the government or the war effort in a negative light. This act made it a crime to utter, print, write, or publish any disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about the form of the U.S. government.

Schenck v. United States (1919):

• This Supreme Court case upheld the constitutionality of the Espionage Act in contexts where the defendant had circulated documents that urged resistance to the draft during World War I. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes formulated the famous "clear and present danger" test to determine when speech could be restricted. Holmes argued that speech that posed a clear and present danger to the country's recruitment efforts during wartime could be limited. The ruling effectively meant that the government could suppress or punish speech that it deemed dangerous during times of national emergency, setting a precedent that speech is not an absolute right under all circumstances.

African Americans and the War Effort

Role of African Americans: Nearly 400,000 African Americans served in segregated units during the war, with very few allowed to be officers. Despite facing severe discrimination, their participation showed the contradictions of fighting for democracy abroad while being denied rights at home.

Effects on American Society

Jobs for Women: The war opened up new employment opportunities for women as they filled roles vacated by men who went to fight. This significant contribution to the war effort helped garner support for the passage of the 19th Amendment, granting women the right to vote.

Great Migration: The war also accelerated the Great Migration, with approximately 1 million African Americans moving from the South to northern cities for better job opportunities and to escape racial violence and economic hardships, reshaping the demographic landscape of the U.S.

Postwar Problems

Red Scare:

• The Red Scare in 1919 was fueled by fears of communism, especially after the communist takeover in Russia. It sparked widespread xenophobia and led to restrictive immigration policies in the 1920s. This period was marked by intense anti-Communist and anti-immigrant sentiments.

Palmer Raids:

• Initiated by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer after unexplained bombings, the Palmer Raids involved mass arrests of anarchists, socialists, and labor agitators from November 1919 to January 1920. Over 6,000 arrests were made with minimal criminal evidence, and 500 foreigners were deported, including the radical activist Emma Goldman. These actions quickly lost public support as fears subsided and concerns over civil liberties grew.