7.5 - The Age of Progress and Modernity

Developments in Science and Philosophy (Late 18th - Early 19th Century)

Impact of Scientific Advancements:

• Disruption of Beliefs: Scientific developments during this period created confusion and uncertainty among Europeans, challenging their understanding of the world.

Charles Darwin and Evolution:

• Theory of Evolution: Charles Darwin introduced the theory of evolution and natural selection, suggesting that humans evolved over millions of years, conflicting with the religious belief in divine creation.

• Religious Reaction: Darwin’s ideas caused significant controversy in religious communities, as they challenged the belief that humans were created by God.

Rise of Positivism:

• Definition: Positivism is the idea that truth must be scientifically verified or provable through mathematical quantification. If something cannot be proven this way, it is not considered true.

• Impact on Religion: Positivism threatened religious beliefs, which are based on divine revelation rather than scientific proof.

Conflict Between Science and Religion:

• Christianity vs. Positivism: Christianity teaches that the ultimate truths come from God, while positivism asserts that truth is discovered through science and math.

• Example: The central doctrine of Christianity, such as atonement through Jesus Christ’s blood, is a matter of belief and cannot be scientifically proven, illustrating the tension between faith and scientific inquiry.

Moral Relativism:

• Consequence of Positivism: The rise of positivism led to moral relativism, where truth became subjective, varying based on individual perspectives. This idea conflicted with the belief in universal truths upheld by Christianity.

Modernism and Irrationalism:

• Modernism: This term refers to the growing tension between scientific advancements and traditional beliefs, leading to the development of modernist philosophy.

• Irrationalism: Philosophers began to emphasize the irrational nature of the world, challenging the Enlightenment's focus on rationality.

• Key Figures:

  • Friedrich Nietzsche: Argued that humans are governed more by emotions and instincts than by reason. He criticized Christianity for stifling creativity and declared that “God is dead,” suggesting that humanity could be liberated from religious constraints.

  • Henri Bergson: Proposed that science is useful for practical knowledge but fails to capture the true essence of reality, which can only be experienced intuitively.

Influence on Psychology:

• Sigmund Freud: Applied the concept of irrationalism to psychology, arguing that human behavior is governed by the subconscious, shaped by childhood experiences, rather than rational decision-making.

• Psychoanalysis: Freud developed psychoanalysis to explore the connections between the conscious and subconscious mind, influencing the field of psychology.

Challenges to Newtonian Physics:

• Newtonian Universe: Previously, the physical world was understood to be predictable and knowable through rational laws, such as gravity and planetary motion.

• Quantum Mechanics: Physicist Max Planck discovered that atoms behaved unpredictably, radiating energy in erratic packets called quanta, rather than in constant flows. This revelation showed that the universe at the atomic level was chaotic and unpredictable, challenging the Newtonian view of a stable, rational universe.